Japanese verbs, like the verbs of many other languages, can be morphologically modified to change their meaning or grammatical function – a process known as conjugation. In Japanese, the beginning of a word (the stem) is preserved during conjugation, while the ending of the word is altered in some way to change the meaning (this is the inflectional suffix). Japanese verb conjugations are independent of person, number and gender (they do not depend on whether the subject is I, you, he, she, we, etc.); the conjugated forms can express meanings such as negation, present and past tense, volition, passive voice, causation, imperative and conditional mood, and ability. There are also special forms for conjunction with other verbs, and for combination with particles for additional meanings.
Japanese verbs have agglutinating properties: some of the conjugated forms are themselves conjugable verbs (or i-adjectives), which can result in several suffixes being strung together in a single verb form to express a combination of meanings.
Verb groups
edit
For Japanese verbs, the verb stem remains invariant among all conjugations. However, conjugation patterns vary according to a verb's category. For example, 知る (shiru) and 着る (kiru) belong to different verb categories (godan and ichidan, respectively) and therefore follow different conjugation patterns. As such, knowing a verb's category is essential for conjugating Japanese verbs.
Japanese verbs can be allocated into three categories:[1]
- Godan verbs (五段動詞, godan-dōshi, literally: "five‑row verbs"), also known as "pentagrade verbs"
- Ichidan verbs (一段動詞, ichidan-dōshi, literally: "one‑row verbs"), also known as "monograde verbs"
- Irregular verbs, most notably: する (suru, to do) and 来る (kuru, to come)
Verbs are conjugated from their "dictionary form", where the final kana is either removed or changed in some way.[1] From a technical standpoint, verbs usually require a specific conjugational stem (see § Verb bases, below) for any given inflection or suffix. With godan verbs, the conjugational stem can span all five rows of the gojūon kana table (hence, the classification as a pentagrade verb). Ichidan verbs are simpler to conjugate: the final kana, which is always る (ru), is simply removed or replaced with the appropriate inflectional suffix. This means ichidan verb stems, in themselves, are valid conjugational stems which always end with the same kana (hence, the classification as a monograde verb).
This phenomenon can be observed by comparing conjugations of the two verb types, within the context of the gojūon table.[2]
| Godan Form | Gojūon table 'ma' column |
Godan Verb 読む (to read) |
Ichidan Form | Ichidan Verb 見る (to see) |
Ichidan Verb 止める (to stop) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Negative | ま (ma) | 読まない yomanai |
Negative | みない* minai |
止めない tomenai | ||
| Polite | み (mi) | 読みます yomimasu |
Polite | みます* mimasu |
止めます tomemasu | ||
| Dictionary (no conjugation) |
む (mu) | 読む yomu |
Dictionary | みる* miru |
止める tomeru | ||
| Potential | め (me) | 読める yomeru |
Potential | みられる* mirareru |
止められる tomerareru | ||
| Volitional | も (mo) | 読もう yomō |
Volitional | みよう* miyō |
止めよう tomeyō | ||
- * These forms are given here in hiragana for illustrative purposes; they would normally be written with kanji as 見ない, 見ます etc.
As visible above, the godan verb yomu (読む, to read) has a static verb stem, yo- (読〜), and a dynamic conjugational stem which changes depending on the purpose: yoma- (読ま〜, row 1), yomi- (読み〜, row 2), yomu (読む, row 3), yome- (読め〜, row 4) and yomo- (読も〜, row 5). Unlike godan verb stems, ichidan verb stems are also functional conjugational stems, with the final kana of the stem remaining static in all conjugations.
Verb bases
editConjugable words (verbs, i‑adjectives, and na‑adjectives) are traditionally considered to have six possible conjugational stems or bases (活用形, katsuyōkei, literally "conjugation forms") .[3] However, as a result of the language evolving,[4][5] historical sound shifts,[6][7] and the post‑WWII spelling reforms,[8] three additional sub‑bases have emerged for verbs (seen in the table below as the Potential, Volitional, and Euphonic bases). Meanwhile, verbs no longer differentiate between the terminal form (終止形, shūshikei, used to terminate a predicate) and the attributive form (連体形, rentaikei, used to modify a noun or noun phrase) bases (these bases are only distinguished for na‑adjectives in the modern language, see Japanese adjectives).[9][10] Verb bases function as the necessary stem forms to which inflectional suffixes attach.
Verbs are named and listed in dictionaries according to their "dictionary form" (辞書形, jishokei). This is also called the "plain form" (since this is the plain, non‑polite, non‑past conjugation), and it is the same as the modern "terminal form" (終止形, shūshikei), and the "attributive form" (連体形, rentaikei).[2] The verb group (godan, ichidan, or irregular) determines how to derive any given conjugation base for the verb. With godan verbs, the base is derived by shifting the final kana along the respective vowel row of the gojūon kana table. With ichidan verbs, the base is derived by removing or replacing the final る (ru) kana.[2]
The table below illustrates the various verb bases across the verb groups, with the patterns starting from the dictionary form.[11]
| Verb base | Godan | Ichidan | Irregular | Usage | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 言う (to say) | 作る (to make) | 見る (to see) | 始める (to begin) | 来る (to come) | する (to do) | |||||
| Shūshikei base [9] | No changes | No changes | No changes | Imperfective form | ||||||
| (終止形, Terminal) | 言う iu | 作る tsukuru | 見る miru | 始める hajimeru | くる kuru | する suru | ||||
| Rentaikei base [9] (連体形, Attributive) | ||||||||||
| Kateikei base [12] | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the え row | Remove る | [i] | Conditional form | ||||||
| (仮定形, Hypothetical) | 言え ie | 作れ tsukure | 見 mi | 始め hajime | くれ kure | すれ sure | ||||
| Kanōkei base [4][5] | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the え row | (こ ko) | (できる dekiru) | Potential form | ||||||
| (可能形, Potential) | 言え ie | 作れ tsukure | ||||||||
| Meireikei base [13] | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the え row | Remove る[ii] | [ii] | Imperative form | ||||||
| (命令形, Imperative) | 言え ie | 作れ tsukure | 見 mi (見ろ miro) |
始め hajime (始めろ hajimero) |
こい koi | しろ shiro せよ seyo | ||||
| Mizenkei base [14] | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the あ row | Remove る | [v] | Negative form Passive form Causative form | ||||||
| (未然形, Irrealis) [iii] | 言わ iwa [iv] | 作ら tsukura | 見 mi | 始め hajime | こ ko | さ sa | し shi | せ se | ||
| Ishikei base [15] | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the お row | し shi | Tentative form | |||||||
| (推量形, Tentative) | 言お io | 作ろ tsukuro | ||||||||
| Ren'yōkei base [16] | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the い row | Remove る | Conjunctive form | |||||||
| (連用形, Conjunctive) | 言い ii | 作り tsukuri | 見 mi | 始め hajime | き ki | し shi | ||||
| Onbinkei base [17] | Remove the 〜〇 kana, add っ, し, い or ん | Perfective form te form | ||||||||
| (音便形, Euphonic) | 言っ it | 作っ tsukut | ||||||||
- [i] The verb 来る (kuru) has no dedicated kanōkei base. Instead, the passive form 来られる (korareru) is used to express the potential sense. する lacks a kanōkei base; instead, the suppletive ichidan verb できる (dekiru) is used as the potential form of する.[2][18] See also the § Passive: Conjugation table section below.
- [ii] 〜ろ (-ro) is used for the spoken imperative form, while 〜よ (-yo) is used for the written imperative form.[19]
- [iii] The meaning of the term 未然形 (mizenkei, irrealis) originates from its archaic usage with the conditional 〜ば (-ba) suffix in Old Japanese and Classical Japanese.[20] The conjugated forms in the modern language, such as the passive and causative forms, do not invoke an irrealis mood, but the term mizenkei was retained.
- [iv] The mizenkei base for verbs ending in 〜う (-u) appears to be an exceptional case with the unexpected 〜わ (-wa). This realization of -wa is a leftover from past sound changes, an artifact preserved from the archaic Japanese -fu from -pu verbs (which would have yielded, regularly, -wa from -fa from -pa). This is noted with historical kana orthography in dictionaries; for example, 言う (iu) from 言ふ (ifu) from ipu and 言わぬ (iwanu) from 言はぬ (ifanu) (from ipanu).[21] In modern Japanese, original instances of mid‑word consonant [w] have since been dropped before all vowels except [a].[21][22][23] (For more on this shift in consonants, see Old Japanese § Consonants, Early Middle Japanese § Consonants, and Late Middle Japanese § /h/ and /p/.)
- [v] There are three mizenkei bases for the verb する (suru), depending on the resulting conjugated form: さ (sa) for passive and causative forms, し (shi) for the negative and volitional forms, and せ (se) for the negative continuous form.[24]
Of the nine verb bases, the shūshikei/rentaikei, meireikei, and ren'yōkei bases can be considered fully conjugated forms without needing to append inflectional suffixes. In particular, the shūshikei/rentaikei and meireikei bases do not conjugate with any inflectional suffixes. By contrast, a verb cannot be considered fully conjugated in its kateikei, mizenkei, izenkei, kanōkei, or onbinkei base alone; a compatible inflectional suffix is required for that verb construction to be grammatical.[25]
Certain inflectional suffixes, in themselves, take on the form of verbs or i‑adjectives. These suffixes can then be further conjugated by adopting one of the verb bases, followed by the attachment of the appropriate suffix. The agglutinative nature of Japanese verb conjugation can thus make the final form of a given verb conjugation quite long. For example, the word 食べさせられたくなかった (tabesaseraretakunakatta) is broken down into its component morphemes below:
| 食べさせられたくなかった (tabesaseraretakunakatta, "did not want to be made to eat") | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 食べ (tabe) | させ (sase) | られ (rare) | たく (taku) | なかっ (naka'-) | た (ta) | ||
| Mizenkei base of 食べる (taberu) |
Mizenkei base of the させる (saseru) causative suffix |
Ren'yōkei base of the られる (rareru) passive suffix |
Ren'yōkei base of the たい (tai) desiderative suffix |
Past‑tense ren'yōkei base of the ない (nai) negation suffix |
Inflectional suffix た (ta), marking past tense | ||
| "to eat" (Verb stem) | Causative voice: "to make someone do" | Passive voice: "to be done" | Desiderative mood: "wanting to do something" | Negation: "not", negates whatever came before | Perfective aspect: indicates completion or past tense | ||
Derivative verb bases
editThere are three modern verb base forms that are considered to be derived from older forms. These are the potential, volitional, and euphonic sub‑bases, as shown in the Verb base formation table above.
As with all languages, the Japanese language has evolved to fulfil the contemporary needs of communication. The potential form of verbs is one such example. In Old Japanese and Early Middle Japanese, potential was expressed with the verb ending ゆ (yu), which was also used to express the passive voice ("to be done") and the spontaneous voice ("something happens on its own"). This evolved into the modern passive ending （ら）れる (-(ra)reru), which can similarly express potential and spontaneous senses. As usage patterns changed over time, different kinds of potential constructions emerged, such as the grammatical pattern of the rentaikei base + -koto ga dekiru (〜ことができる), and also via the kanōkei base.[4] The historical development of the kanōkei base is disputed, however the consensus is that it stemmed from a shift wherein transitive verbs developed an intransitive sense similar to the spontaneous, passive, and potential, and these intransitive forms conjugated in the 下二段活用 (shimo nidan katsuyō, lower bigrade conjugation pattern) of the Classical Japanese of the time.[5] The lower bigrade conjugation pattern evolved into the modern ichidan pattern in modern Japanese, and these stems for godan verbs have the same form as the hypothetical stems in the table above.
The mizenkei base that ends with -a was also used to express the volitional mood for yodan verbs (四段動詞, yodan-dōshi, "Class‑4 verbs") in Old Japanese and Middle Japanese, in combination with volitional suffix む (-mu). Sound changes caused the resulting -amu ending to change: /-amu/ → /-ãu/ → /-au/ (like English "ow") → /-ɔː/ (like English "aw") → /-oː/. The post‑WWII spelling reforms updated spellings to reflect this and other sound changes, resulting in the addition of the ishikei or volitional base, ending with -o, for the volitional mood of yodan verbs. This also resulted in a reclassification of "yodan verbs" to "godan verbs" (五段動詞, godan-dōshi, "Class‑5 verbs").[8][15]
The ren'yōkei base also underwent various euphonic changes specific to the perfective and conjunctive (te) forms for certain verb stems,[26][6][7] giving rise to the onbinkei or euphonic base.[17] In the onbinkei base, the inflectional suffixes for godan verbs vary according to the last kana of the verb's ren'yōkei base.[2]
Copula: da and desu
editThe copula or "to be" verb in Japanese is a special case. This comes in two basic forms, だ (da) in the plain form and です (desu) in the polite form. These are generally used to predicate sentences, equate one thing with another (i.e. "A is B."), or express a self‑directed thought (e.g. a sudden emotion or realization).[27]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| It is a book. | 本です (hon desu) | predicate |
| The weather was awful. | 天気が大変でした (tenki ga taihen deshita) | copula, A is B |
| Ah! A cockroach! | わっ！ゴキブリだ！ (wa! gokiburi da!) | self‑directed |
Copula: Conjugation table
editThe Japanese copula is not a standard 'verb' and conjugations are limited to a smaller subset of functions. Furthermore, this conjugates according to its own specific patterns:[10]
| Dictionary form (no conjugation) |
Negative (colloquial) |
Negative (formal) |
Perfective (past tense) |
te form | Conditional | Conjecture (probably) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| だ da |
じゃない ja nai [i] |
ではない de wa nai |
だった datta |
で de |
なら（ば） |
(だろう) (darō) [ii] |
| です desu |
じゃありません ja arimasen [i] |
ではありません de wa arimasen |
でした deshita |
であれば deare ba |
(でしょう) (deshō) [ii] |
- [i] じゃ (ja) is a colloquial abbreviation of では (de wa).[10]
- [ii] Although だろう (darō) and でしょう (deshō) were originally conjugations of だ (da) and です (desu) respectively, they are now also used as auxiliary verbs.[28]
Copula: Grammatical compatibility
editThe だ negative forms, じゃない (ja nai) and ではない (de wa nai), are compatible with all negative valence conjugations (such as the negative past tense or the negative -te form).[10] However, the です negative forms, じゃありません (ja arimasen) and ではありません (de wa arimasen), are conjugated into the past tense by appending でした (deshita) as a suffix (and are therefore incompatible with subsequent 〜ない (-nai) conjugations).[10] Furthermore, the perfective forms, だった (datta) and でした (deshita), are compatible with the ~tara conditional.[29]
Imperfective
editThe imperfective form (also known as the "non‑past", "plain form", "short form", "dictionary form" and the "attributive form") is broadly equivalent to the present and future tenses of English. In Japanese, the imperfective form is used as the headword or lemma. It is used to express actions that are assumed to continue into the future, habits or future intentions.[30]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| (Do you eat sushi?) Yes, I eat sushi. |
(寿司を食べる?) (sushi o taberu?) うん、寿司を食べる (un, sushi o taberu) |
assumption to continue action |
| I go shopping every weekend. | 毎週末買い物する (mai shūmatsu kaimono suru) | habit / reoccurring action |
| I will study tomorrow. | 明日勉強する (ashita benkyō suru) | future intention |
The imperfective form cannot be used to make a progressive continuous statement, such as in the English sentence "I am shopping". To do so, the verb must first be conjugated into its te form and attached to the いる (iru) auxiliary verb ().
Imperfective: Conjugation table
editThe imperfective form uses the shūshikei/rentaikei base, and is thus equivalent to the dictionary form.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Imperfect form |
|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | No change | |
| 作る (tsukuru, make)[i] | → | 作る (tsukuru, make) |
| 言う (iu, say) | → | 言う (iu, say) |
| 持つ (motsu, carry) | → | 持つ (motsu, carry) |
| 探す (sagasu, look for) | → | 探す (sagasu, look for) |
| Ichidan verbs | No change | |
| 見る (miru, see) | → | 見る (miru, see) |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | → | 始める (hajimeru, begin) |
| Irregular verbs | ||
| 来る (kuru, come) | → | 来る (kuru, come) |
| する (suru, do) | → | する (suru, do) |
| Special conjugations | ||
| 〜ます (-masu) | → | 〜ます (-masu) |
- [i] For godan verbs ending in 〜る (-ru), the imperfective conjugation, or dictionary form, is the simplest form which is syncretic with ichidan verbs.
Imperfective: Grammatical compatibility
editThe imperfective form can be used to issue prohibitive commands by attaching 〜な (-na).[31] For example, 入るな！ (hairu na!, "Do not enter!"). Additionally, the imperfective form is compatible with the nominalizers 〜の (-no) and 〜こと (-koto), which repurpose the verb as a noun. For example, カラオケで歌うのは楽しい！ (karaoke de utau no wa tanoshii!, Singing at karaoke is fun!).
Negative
editThe negative form is broadly equivalent to the English word "not".[30]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I don't drink alcohol. | お酒は飲まない (osake wa nomanai) | assumption to continue inaction |
| I won't brush my teeth. | 歯を磨かない (ha o migakanai) | immediate inaction |
| I won't work tomorrow. | 明日働かない (ashita hatarakanai) | future inaction |
Negative: Conjugation table
editThe negative form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the ない (nai) suffix.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Negative form |
|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the あ row, then add ない | |
| 作る (tsukuru, make) | 作る → ら ＋ ない | 作らない (tsukuranai, not make) |
| 言う (iu, say) [i] | 言う → わ ＋ ない | 言わない (iwanai, not say) |
| 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ → た ＋ ない | 持たない (motanai, not carry) |
| 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → さ ＋ ない | 探さない (sagasanai, not look for) |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る then add ない | |
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る ＋ ない | 見ない (minai, not see) |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める ＋ ない | 始めない (hajimenai, not begin) |
| Irregular verbs | ||
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる → こ ＋ ない | こない (konai, not come) |
| する (suru, do) | する → し ＋ ない | しない (shinai, not do) |
| Special conjugations | ||
| 〜ます (-masu) | 〜ます → せ ＋ ん | 〜ません (-masen, not) [ii] |
| Special exceptions | ||
| ある (aru, exist) | ある → ない | ない (nai, not exist) |
- [i] For godan verbs ending in 〜う (-u), the "う" changes to "わ" (wa) in the negative conjugation. It does not change to "あ" (a).
- [ii] The negative past form of 〜ます is 〜ませんでした (-masen deshita, did not).[2]
Negative: Grammatical compatibility
editThe negative form is compatible with the ～で (-de) particle for additional functions, such as requesting someone to cease/desist or joining a subordinate clause.
It is also compatible with i‑adjective inflections, since the ～ない (-nai) suffix ends with ～い (-i).
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Please don't eat it. | 食べないで下さい (tabenai de kudasai) | request to cease/desist |
| Without eating, I went to bed. | 食べないで、寝た (tabenai de, neta) | add a subordinate clause |
| I didn't talk. | 話さなかった (hanasanakatta) | i‑adjective inflection (example: negative past tense) |
Negative continuous
editThe negative continuous form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the 〜ず (zu) suffix; equivalent to replacing 〜ない (-nai) with 〜ず (-zu) in the table above. An exception is する (suru, to do), which instead conjugates as せず (sezu, not doing). In this form, the negative continuous cannot terminate a sentence. The verb has the "negative continuous tense" unless followed by the に (ni) particle, where its meaning changes to "without". The -zuni form (〜ずに, without doing) is semantically interchangeable with -naide (〜ないで, without doing). However, -zuni is only used in written Japanese or formal speech.[32][33]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| While not eating breakfast, I went to work. | 朝ごはんを食べず、仕事へ行った (asa gohan o tabezu, shigoto e itta) | negative continuous |
| I went to work without eating breakfast. | 朝ごはんを食べずに仕事へ行った (asa gohan o tabezu ni shigoto e itta) | without doing |
Perfective
editThe perfective form (過去形・完了形, kakokei / kanryōkei, also known as the "ta form", "past tense" and the "perfect tense") is equivalent to the English "past tense".[34]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I went to Japan. | 日本に行った (nihon ni itta) | past tense |
| I practiced piano every day. | 毎日ピアノの練習をした (mainichi piano no renshū o shita) | simple past |
Perfective: Conjugation table
editThe perfective form is created by using the onbinkei base, followed by the た・だ (ta/da) suffix. This conjugation pattern is more complex compared to other conjugations because the exact realization of the inflectional suffix—particularly in godan verbs—is based on the euphony (音便, onbin) of the verb stem. (See also: Euphonic changes)
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Perfective form | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Various suffix-specific patterns | ||
| る | 作る (tsukuru, make) | 作る ＋ った | 作った (tsukutta, made) |
| う | 言う (iu, say) | 言う ＋ った | 言った (itta, said) |
| つ | 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ ＋ った | 持った (motta, carried) |
| す | 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → した | 探した (sagashita, looked for) |
| く | 置く (oku, put) | 置く ＋ いた | 置いた (oita, had put) |
| ぐ | 泳ぐ (oyogu, swim) | 泳ぐ ＋ いだ | 泳いだ (oyoida, swam) |
| ぶ | 呼ぶ (yobu, summon) | 呼ぶ ＋ んだ | 呼んだ (yonda, summoned) |
| む | 休む (yasumu, rest) | 休む ＋ んだ | 休んだ (yasunda, rested) |
| ぬ | 死ぬ (shinu, die) [i] | 死ぬ ＋ んだ | 死んだ (shinda, died) |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る then add た | ||
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る ＋ た | 見た (mita, saw) | |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める ＋ た | 始めた (hajimeta, began) | |
| Irregular verbs | Shift the 〇〜 kana to the い row, remove る then add た | ||
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる → き ＋ た | きた (kita, came) | |
| する (suru, do) | する → し ＋ た | した (shita, did it) | |
| Special conjugations | |||
| 〜ます (-masu) | 〜ます → し ＋ た | 〜ました (-mashita, did) [ii] | |
| 〜ない (-nai, not) | 〜ない ＋ かった | 〜なかった (-nakatta, did not) | |
| Special exceptions | |||
| 行く (iku, go) | 行く ＋ った | 行った (itta, went) | |
| 問う (tou, ask/blame) | 問う ＋ た | 問うた (touta, asked/blamed) | |
| 請う (kou, beg) | 請う ＋ た | 請うた (kouta, begged) | |
- [i] 死ぬ (shinu, to die) is the only verb with the ぬ (nu) suffix, in the entire Japanese vocabulary.
- [ii] The negative perfective form of 〜ます is 〜ませんでした (-masen deshita, did not).[2]
Perfective: Grammatical compatibility
editThe perfective form is compatible with:
- The "tari form" (or "tari‑tari form", also known as the "tari‑tari‑suru form"), to describe a non‑exhaustive list of actions (similar to ＡやＢ describes a non‑exhaustive lists of objects). It uses り (ri) as the subordinate conjunction.[35][36]
- The "tara form" (or "past conditional"), to describe events that will happen as a result of completing something. It uses ら (ra) as the subordinate conjunction.[37][29]
- It can be used to mean "if" or "when";
- It can also be used to reveal an unexpected outcome that happened in the past.
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I read a book, watched TV, etc. | 本を読んだり、テレビを見たりした (hon o yondari, terebi o mitari shita) | non‑exhaustive list of actions |
| If I go to Japan, I want to see Mount Fuji. | 日本に行ったら、富士山が見たい (nihon ni ittara, fuji san ga mitai) | if or when |
| When I went to the cafe, I came across Suzuki. | カフェに行ったら、鈴木さんに会った (kafe ni ittara, Suzuki-san ni atta) | unexpected past outcome |
te form
editThe te form (て形, tekei) allows verbs to function like conjunctions. Similar to the word "and" in English, the te form connects clauses to make longer sentences. Conversely, as a sentence terminal, it functions as a casual instruction (like a gentle imperative command). Finally, the te form attaches to a myriad of auxiliary verbs for various purposes.[38][39]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| (I will eat breakfast. I will go to school.) I will eat breakfast and go to school. |
朝ごはんを食べる。学校に行く。 (asagohan o taberu. gakkō ni iku.) 朝ごはんを食べて学校に行く (asagohan o tabete gakkō ni iku) |
conjunction |
| Please eat. | 食べて (tabete) | gentle instruction |
| I am waiting. | 待っている (matte iru) | auxiliary verb (example: present-continuous) |
There are limitations where the te form cannot be used to conjugate between pairs of verbs (such as when two verbs are unrelated) and the conjunctive form is used instead.[40] ()
te form: Conjugation table
editThe te form is created by using the onbinkei base, followed by the て・で (te/de) suffix. Just like the perfective form, this conjugation pattern is more complex compared to other conjugations because the exact realization of the inflectional suffix—particularly in godan verbs—is based on the euphony (音便, onbin) of the verb stem. (See also: Euphonic changes)
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | te form | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Various suffix-specific patterns | ||
| る | 作る (tsukuru, make) | 作る ＋ って | 作って (tsukutte, make and) |
| う | 言う (iu, say) | 言う ＋ って | 言って (itte, say and) |
| つ | 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ ＋ って | 持って (motte, carry and) |
| す | 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → して | 探して (sagashite, look for and) |
| く | 置く (oku, put) | 置く ＋ いて | 置いて (oite, put and) |
| ぐ | 泳ぐ (oyogu, swim) | 泳ぐ ＋ いで | 泳いで (oyoide, swim and) |
| ぶ | 呼ぶ (yobu, summon) | 呼ぶ ＋ んで | 呼んで (yonde, summon and) |
| む | 休む (yasumu, rest) | 休む ＋ んで | 休んで (yasunde, rest and) |
| ぬ | 死ぬ (shinu, die) [i] | 死ぬ ＋ んで | 死んで (shinde, die and) |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る then add て | ||
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る ＋ て | 見て (mite, see and) | |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める ＋ て | 始めて (hajimete, begin and) | |
| Irregular verbs | Shift the 〇〜 kana to the い row, remove る then add て | ||
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる → き ＋ て | きて (kite, come and) | |
| する (suru, do) | する → し ＋ て | して (shite, do it and) | |
| Special conjugations | |||
| 〜ます (-masu) | 〜ます → し ＋ て | 〜まして (-mashite, and) | |
| 〜ない (-nai, not) [ii] | 〜ない ＋ で | 〜ないで (-naide, without and)[iii] | |
| 〜ない ＋ くて | 〜なくて (-nakute, not and)[iv] | ||
| Special exceptions | |||
| 行く (iku, go) | 行く ＋ って | 行って (itte, go and) | |
| 問う (tou, ask/blame) | 問う ＋ て | 問うて (toute, ask/blame and) | |
| 請う (kou, beg) | 請う ＋ て | 請うて (koute, beg and) | |
- [i] 死ぬ (shinu, to die) is the only verb with the ぬ (nu) suffix, in the entire Japanese vocabulary.
- [ii] This conjugation is not reciprocated in the perfective form; the past tense of ない (-nai) is なかった (-nakatta, was not).
- [iii] The 〜ないで (-nai de) form is only grammatical with verbs. It is used to emphasize negation, or otherwise used as an imperative if an auxiliary follows, e.g. 〜ないで下さい (-nai de kudasai, Please don't…).[32]
- [iv] The 〜なくて (-nakute) form is grammatical with adjectives and copula, but also with verbs when expressing a consequential human emotion or contradiction.[32]
te form: Grammatical compatibility
editThe te form is compatible with particles for additional functions, such as giving permission or expressing prohibition.[41][39]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| It's okay to eat here. | ここで食べてもいい (koko de tabete mo ii) | permission |
| You must not eat here. | ここで食べてはいけない (koko de tabete wa ikenai) | prohibition |
The te form is also compatible with an extensive list of auxiliary verbs. These auxiliary verbs are attached after the 〜て.[42]
| Aux. | English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| 〜いる | I'm carrying the bag. | 鞄を持っている (kaban o motte iru) [v] | continuous action |
| 〜ある | Some Arabic letters are written here. | ここにアラビア文字が書いてある (koko ni arabia moji ga kaite aru) | completed and remains to be |
| 〜おく | I'll make a sandwich for later. | サンドイッチを作っておく (sandoitchi o tsukutte oku) [vi] | prepare for future |
| 〜みる | I'll try to climb Mount Everest. | エベレスト山に登ってみる (eberesuto san ni nobotte miru) | attempt |
| 〜しまう | (I ate.) I finished eating. |
(食べた) (tabeta) 食べてしまった (tabete shimatta) |
emphasize completion |
| ＊ちゃう | I accidentally forgot my smartphone! | スマホ忘れちゃった！ (sumaho wasure chatta!) [vii] | accident/regret |
- [v] Colloquially, the い (i) is dropped. For example, 持っている (motte iru) becomes 持ってる (motte ru).
- [vi] Colloquially, てお〜 (te o-) undergoes morpheme fusion, becoming と〜 (to-). For example, 作っておく (tsukutte oku) becomes 作っとく (tsukuttoku).
- [vii] In this case, て is dropped rather than being attached to ちゃう. This is because ちゃう (chau) is a morpheme fusion of ちまう (chimau), which itself is a morpheme fusion of てしまう (te shimau). Similarly, で (de) is also dropped when attaching to じゃう (jau) and じまう (jimau), which are the morpheme fusions of でしまう (de shimau).[43]
Finally, the te form is necessary for making polite requests with 下さる (kudasaru) and くれる (kureru). These honorific words are attached with their imperative forms 〜下さい (-kudasai) and 〜くれ (-kure), which is more socially proper than using the true imperative.[44][42]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Please lend me the book. | 本を貸して下さい (hon o kashite kudasai) | polite request |
| Will you lend me the book? | 本を貸してくれない？ (hon o kashite kurenai?) | plain request |
te form: Advanced usage
editDuring speech, the speaker may terminate a sentence in the te form but slightly lengthen the vowel sound as a natural pause: てぇ (te…). Similar to when a sentence ends with "so…" in English, this serves as a social cue that can:
- give the listener a moment to process;
- indicate the speaker is not finished speaking;
- seek permission from the listener to continue;
- imply that the listener should infer the remainder of the sentence.
Another usage of the te form is, just as with English, the order of clauses may be reversed to create emphasis. However, unlike in English, the sentence will terminate on the te form (rather than between clauses).
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I'll go to the pharmacy and buy medicine. | 薬局へ行って薬を買う (yakkyoku e itte kusuri o kau) | typical conjunction |
| I'll buy medicine, by going to the pharmacy | 薬を買う。薬局へ行って (kusuri o kau. yakkyoku e itte) | reversed conjunction |
Conjunctive
editThe conjunctive form (also known as the "stem form", "masu form", "i form" and the "continuative form")[45] functions like an intermediate conjugation; it requires an auxiliary verb to be attached since the conjunctive form is rarely used in isolation. It can also function to link separate clauses (hence the name "conjunctive") in a similar way to the te form above; however usage of the conjunctive form as a conjunction has restrictions. The conjunctive form can function as a gerund (a verb functioning as a noun) without the need for nominalizers, although permissible use cases are limited.[46][40][47][48]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I'll meet the customer. | お客様に会います (okyakusama ni aimasu) | polite language |
| I want to win the game. | 試合に勝ちたい (shiai ni kachitai) | auxiliary verb (example: desire) |
| I'll go to see a movie. | 映画を見に行く (eiga o mi ni iku) | particle (example: purpose) |
| We're about to change trains. Don't forget your shopping! |
まもなく列車を乗り換えるよ。 (mamonaku ressha o norikaeru yo.) 買い物を忘れるな！ (kaimono o wasureru na!) |
compound words |
Conjunctive: Conjugation table
editThe conjunctive form uses the ren'yōkei base. It is one of the simplest conjugation patterns due to its lack of irregular conjugations. It does have an additional case for certain honorific verbs, but even those follow a consistent conjugation pattern.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Conjunctive form [i] |
|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the い row | |
| 作る (tsukuru, make) | 作る → り | 作り (tsukuri, making) |
| 言う (iu, say) | 言う → い | 言い (ii, saying) |
| 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ → ち | 持ち (mochi, carrying) |
| 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → し | 探し (sagashi, looking for) |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る | |
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る | 見 (mi, seeing) |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める | 始め (hajime, beginning) |
| Irregular verbs | Shift the 〇〜 kana to the い row, then remove る | |
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる → き | き (ki, coming) |
| する (suru, do) | する → し | し (shi, doing) |
| Honorific verbs | Remove る then add い | |
| 下さる (kudasaru, give) [ii] | 下さる → い | 下さい (kudasai, giving) |
- [i] The English translations use the "-ing" suffix for nominalization. Therefore, they are nouns, not present continuous verbs.
- [ii] Other honorific words, such as ござる (gozaru, to be), いらっしゃる (irassharu, to come/go) and なさる (nasaru, to do), also conjugate with this pattern.[2]
Conjunctive: Grammatical compatibility
editThe conjunctive form is compatible with particles for additional functions, such as expressing purpose[49] or a firm avoidance.[50]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I'll go to Hiroshima to see the Itsukushima shrine. | 厳島神社を見に広島へ行く (itsukushima jinja o mi ni hiroshima e iku) | purpose |
| I won't talk. | 話しはしない (hanashi wa shinai) | firm avoidance |
The conjunctive form is also compatible with an extensive list of auxiliary verbs.[46] One of which, ます (masu), has highly irregular inflections.[51][52][53]
| Aux. | English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| 〜ます | I'll write a letter. | 手紙を書きます (tegami o kakimasu) | polite language |
| 〜たい | I want to buy a new computer. | 新しいパソコンを買いたい (atarashii pasokon o kai tai) | desire |
| 〜易い | It's easy to learn mathematics. | 数学が学び易い (sūgaku ga manabi yasui) | easy to do |
| 〜難い | It's hard to understand classical literature. | 古典文学が分かり難い (koten bungaku ga wakari nikui) | difficult to do |
| 〜過ぎる | I drink too much alcohol. | お酒を飲み過ぎる (o sake o nomi sugiru) | excessiveness |
| 〜ながら | I'll drink coffee while walking to the station. | 駅に向かって歩きながらコーヒーを飲む (eki ni mukatte aruki nagara kōhii o nomu) | simultaneous action |
| 〜なさい | Write your name here. | ここに名前を書きなさい (koko ni namae o kaki nasai) | polite imperative |
Conjunctive: Advanced usage
editThe conjunctive form, like the te form, connects clauses in a similar way to how "and" does in English. However, the conjunctive and te forms are not usually interchangeable, and each form fulfills specific grammatical purposes. When a pair of verbs have a strong connection in context, only the te form can bridge them. When a pair of verbs are not directly related but happen during a shared period of time, only the conjunctive form can bridge them. Furthermore, if a pair of verbs are both controllable or uncontrollable in nature, the te form must bridge them; otherwise, when a verb is controllable whilst the other verb is uncontrollable, the conjunctive form must bridge them. Finally, the te and conjunctive forms are interchangeable if additional information is included between the verbs.[40][39]
| Permissible | English | Japanese | Relationship between verbs |
|---|---|---|---|
| te form | I'll go to the department store and do some shopping. | デパートへ行って、買い物をする depāto e itte, kaimono o suru |
closely related |
| te form | I'll meet my friend and ask about their holiday. | 友達に会って、休みのことを尋ねる tomodachi ni atte, yasumi no koto o tazuneru |
both controllable |
| te form | The ground shook so much in the earthquake that I couldn't stand up. | 地震で地面がすごく揺れて、立てなかった jishin de jimen ga sugoku yurete, tatenakatta |
both uncontrollable |
| Interchangeable | Can you open the fridge and get me the carrots from the lower right shelf? | 冷蔵庫を開けて、右下の棚から人参を取ってくれない？ reizōko o akete, migi shita no tana kara ninjin o totte kurenai? |
additional information between them |
| 冷蔵庫を開け、右下の棚から人参を取ってくれない？ reizōko o ake, migi shita no tana kara ninjin o totte kurenai? | |||
| Conjunctive form | They were born in Japan and studied at a Japanese school. | 彼らは日本で生まれ、日本の学校で勉強した karera wa nihon de umare, nihon no gakkō de benkyō shita |
unrelated (birth is unrelated to studying) |
| Conjunctive form | It rained, so I used an umbrella. | 雨が降り、傘を使った ame ga furi, kasa o tsukatta |
uncontrollable + controllable |
In the case where the conjunctive form is interchangeable with the te form, there is a stylistic means where the conjunctive form is preferred. This avoids 「て…て…て…」 (te…te…te…) repetition, much like how English users might avoid saying "and…and…and…". In practice however, such a strategy is more readily accustomed to writing and more difficult to control in spoken conversation (where the te form is usually elected for every verb).[40]
Another common usage is to form compound words, specifically compound nouns and compound verbs. As for compound nouns, the conjunctive form attaches as a prefix to another noun. Compound verbs are formed in the same way, except the conjunctive form attaches to the imperfective form. This pattern can be used to express mutuality if a transitive verb attaches to 〜合う (-au, to unite).[54]
| Verb [conjunctive form] + Noun/Verb [imperfective form] | Compound | Literal translation | Dynamic translation | Function | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 食べ (tabe, eating) | 物 (mono, thing) | 食べ物 (tabe mono) | "eating thing" | food | compound noun |
| 切り (kiri, cutting) | 離す (hanasu, to separate) | 切り離す (kiri hanasu) | "cutting and separating" | to cut off | compound verb |
| 誓い (chikai, promise) | 合う (au, to unite) | 誓い合う (chikai au) | "promising and uniting" | to promise each other | mutual verb |
The conjunctive form is also used in formal honorifics, such as お使い下さい (o tsukai kudasai, "Please use this.").
Volitional
editThe volitional form (also known as the "conjectural form", "tentative form", "presumptive form" and the "hortative form") is used to express speaker's will or intention (volitional), make an inclusive command or invitation (hortative or persuasive)[55] or to make a guess or supposition (presumptive).
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I will put off this task for later. | その仕事は後回しにしよう (sono shigoto wa atomawashi ni shiyō)[56] | personal volition |
| Let's go home! | 帰ろう！ (kaerō!) | inclusive command |
| Shall we eat outside? | 外で食べようか？ (soto de tabeyō ka?) | inclusive invitation |
| There will probably be many objections at the meeting. | 会議では多くの反論が出されよう (kaigi de wa ōku no hanron ga dasareyō)[56] | making a guess or supposition |
Volitional: Conjugation table
editThe volitional form is created by using the ishikei base, followed by the う・よう (u/yō) suffix. Phonetically, う is surfaced as お (o) in volitional form, unlike う in dictionary/imperfective form; for example, 問う (tou, to ask) and 問おう (toō, let's ask).
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Volitional form |
|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the お row, then add う | |
| 作る (tsukuru, make) | 作る → ろ ＋ う | 作ろう (tsukurō, let's make) |
| 言う (iu, say) | 言う → お ＋ う | 言おう (iō, let's say) |
| 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ → と ＋ う | 持とう (motō, let's carry) |
| 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → そ ＋ う | 探そう (sagasō, let's look for) |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る then add よう | |
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る ＋ よう | 見よう (miyō, let's see) |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める ＋ よう | 始めよう (hajimeyō, let's begin) |
| Irregular verbs | ||
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる → こ ＋ よう | こよう (koyō, let's come back) |
| する (suru, do) | する → し ＋ よう | しよう (shiyō, let's do it) |
| Special conjugations | ||
| 〜ます (-masu) | 〜ます → しょ ＋ う | 〜ましょう (-mashō, let's) |
| 〜ない (-nai, not) | ない → かろ ＋ う | 〜なかろう (-nakarō, perhaps not exist) |
| Honorific verbs | Change る to ろ then add う | |
| Honorific verbs [i] | 〜る → ろ ＋ う | 〜ろう (-rō, let's) |
| Special exceptions | ||
| ある (aru, exist) [i] | ある → ろ ＋ う | あろう (arō, probably exist) |
- [i] Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used.[2]
Volitional: Grammatical compatibility
editThe volitional form is also used to describe intention 〜と思う (-to omou)[57] an attempt 〜とする (-to suru) or an imminent action 〜としている (-to shite iru).[58]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I think I'm going to make a salad. | サラダを作ろうと思う (sarada o tsukurō to omou) | intention |
| I'll try to go to bed early. | 早く寝ようとする (hayaku neyō to suru) | attempt |
| The dog is about to bark. | 犬が吠えようとしている (inu ga hoeyō to shite iru) | imminent action |
Passive
editThe passive form (受身形, ukemikei) refocuses the verb as the target objective of a sentence; it emphasizes the action as the detail of importance. Although a sentence can include a specific subject enacting the passive verb, the subject is not required.[59] The passive voice can nuance neutrality, a regrettable action (suffering passive) or a means of being respectful.[60]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| This TV was made by Toshiba. | このテレビは東芝によって作られた (kono terebi wa Toshiba ni yotte tsukurareta) | neutrality |
| My beer was drunk by a friend. | 私は友達にビールを飲まれた (watashi wa tomodachi ni biiru o nomareta) | regrettable action |
| Where are you going? | どちらへ行かれますか (dochira e ikaremasu ka) | respectful language |
Passive: Conjugation table
editThe passive form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the れる・られる (reru/rareru) suffix. For ichidan verbs and 来る (kuru), the passive form and the potential form have an identical conjugation pattern with the same られる (rareru) suffix. This makes it impossible to distinguish whether an ichidan verb adopts a passive or potential function without contextual information.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Passive form |
|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the あ row, then add れる | |
| 作る (tsukuru, make) [i] | 作る → ら ＋ れる | 作られる (tsukurareru, be made) |
| 言う (iu, say) [ii] | 言う → わ ＋ れる | 言われる (iwareru, be said) |
| 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ → た ＋ れる | 持たれる (motareru, be carried) |
| 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → さ ＋ れる | 探される (sagasareru, be looked for) |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る then add られる | |
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る ＋ られる | 見られる (mirareru, be seen) |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める ＋ られる | 始められる (hajimerareru, have began) |
| Irregular verbs | ||
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる → こ ＋ られる | こられる (korareru, have come) |
| する (suru, do) | する → さ ＋ れる | される (sareru, be done) |
| Honorific verbs | Change る to ら then add れる | |
| Honorific verbs [iii] | 〜る → ら ＋ れる | 〜られる (-rareru, be done) |
| Special exceptions | ||
| ある (aru, exist) | Does not conjugate.[2] | |
- [i] For godan verbs ending in 〜る (-ru), the passive conjugation is syncretic with ichidan verbs.
- [ii] For godan verbs ending in 〜う (-u), the "う" changes to "わ" (wa) in the passive conjugation. It does not change to "あ" (a).[60]
- [iii] Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used.[2]
Passive: Grammatical compatibility
editAfter conjugating into the passive form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a passive verb (e.g. 言われる (iwareru, be said)) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the te form (て形, te kei) to join sequential statements (言われて (iwarete)), or the conjunctive form to append the polite -masu (〜ます) auxiliary verb (言われます (iwaremasu)).
Causative
editThe causative form (使役形, shiekikei) is used to express that a subject was forced or allowed to do something.[61]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I make them work hard. | 頑張らせる (ganbaraseru) | forced to |
| I let them play outside. | 外で遊ばせる (soto de asobaseru) | allowed to |
| The baseball coach made the players exercise. | 野球のコーチは選手達に練習させた (yakyū no kōchi wa senshu tachi ni renshū saseta)[i] | forced to by |
- [i] The director causing the action can be specified with the は (wa) or が (ga) particle, whilst the people forced to do the action are specified with the に (ni) particle.[61]
Causative: Conjugation table
editThe causative form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the せる・させる (seru/saseru) suffix.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Causative form [ii] |
|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the あ row, then add せる | |
| 作る (tsukuru, make) | 作る → ら ＋ せる | 作らせる (tsukuraseru, cause to make) |
| 言う (iu, say) [iii] | 言う → わ ＋ せる | 言わせる (iwaseru, cause to say) |
| 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ → た ＋ せる | 持たせる (motaseru, cause to carry) |
| 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → さ ＋ せる | 探させる (sagasaseru, cause to look for) |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る then add させる | |
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る ＋ させる | 見させる (misaseru, cause to see, show) |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める ＋ させる | 始めさせる (hajimesaseru, cause to begin) |
| Irregular verbs | ||
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる → こ ＋ させる | こさせる (kosaseru, cause to come) |
| する (suru, do) | する → さ ＋ せる | させる (saseru, cause to do) |
| Honorific verbs | Change る to ら then add せる | |
| Honorific verbs [iv] | 〜る → ら ＋ せる | 〜らせる (-raseru, cause to) |
| Special exceptions | ||
| ある (aru, exist) | Does not conjugate.[2] | |
- [ii] The causative form has a shortened variation, where the 〜せる (-seru) suffix undergoes morpheme fusion and becomes 〜す (-su); however, the short form is less commonly used than the standard conjugation.[62]
- [iii] For godan verbs ending in 〜う (-u), the "う" changes to "わ" (wa) in the causative conjugation. It does not change to "あ" (a).[61]
- [iv] Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used.[2]
Causative: Grammatical compatibility
editAfter conjugating into the causative form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a causative verb (e.g. 言わせる (iwaseru, caused to say)) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the te form (て形, te kei) to join sequential statements (言わせて (iwasete)), or the conjunctive form to append the polite -masu (〜ます) auxiliary verb (言わせます (iwasemasu)).
Causative passive
editThe causative passive form expresses that a reluctant subject was positioned (or forced) into doing something they would rather avoid. The causative passive form is obtained by conjugating a verb into its causative form and further conjugating it into the passive form. However, because words such as 待たせられる (mataserareru) are considered difficult to pronounce, the conjugational suffix is often contracted in colloquial speech. Specific to godan verbs only, the せら〜 (sera-, from せられる) contracts into さ〜 (sa-).[63]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I'm made to study by my parents. | 両親に勉強させられる (ryōshin ni benkyō saserareru) | formal |
| I'm made to wait. | 待たされる (matasareru) | colloquial present |
| I was made to buy something. | 買わされた (kawasareta) | colloquial past |
Imperative
editThe imperative form functions as firm instructions do in English. It is used to give orders to subordinates (such as within military ranks, or towards pet animals) and to give direct instructions within intimate relationships (for example, within family or close friends). When directed towards a collective rather than an individual, the imperative form is used for mandatory action or motivational speech.[31] The imperative form is also used in reported speech.
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| To a pet dog: Sit! | 座れ！ (suware!) | giving orders |
| Traffic signage: STOP | 止まれ (tomare) | mandatory action |
| Do your best! | 頑張れ！ (ganbare!) | motivation speech |
| Direct speech: "Please begin." I was told to begin. |
直接話法：「始めて下さい」 (chokusetsu wahō: "hajimete kudasai") 始めろと言われた (hajimero to iwareta) |
reported speech |
However, the imperative form is perceived as confrontational or aggressive when used for commands; instead, it is more common to use the te form (with or without the 〜下さい (-kudasai, please do) suffix), or the conjunctive form's polite imperative suffix, 〜なさい (-nasai).[31]
Imperative: Conjugation table
editThe imperative form uses the meireikei base.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Imperative form | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the え row | ||
| 作る (tsukuru, make) | 作る → れ | 作れ (tsukure, make it) | |
| 言う (iu, say) | 言う → え | 言え (ie, say it) | |
| 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ → て | 持て (mote, carry it) | |
| 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → せ | 探せ (sagase, look for it) | |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る then add ろ or よ[i] | ||
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る + | ろ | 見ろ (miro, see it) [spoken] |
| よ | 見よ (miyo, see it) [written] | ||
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める + | ろ | 始めろ (hajimero, begin it) [spoken] |
| よ | 始めよ (hajimeyo, begin it) [written] | ||
| Irregular verbs | |||
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる → こい | こい (koi, do come) | |
| する (suru, do)[i] | する → | しろ | しろ (shiro, do it) [spoken] |
| せよ | せよ (seyo, do it) [written] | ||
| Special conjugations | |||
| 〜ます (-masu) | 〜ます → せ | 〜ませ (-mase, do) | |
| Honorific verbs | Remove る then add い | ||
| 下さる (kudasaru, give) | 下さる → い | 下さい (kudasai, give it) | |
| Special exceptions | |||
| ある (aru, exist) [ii] | ある → れ | あれ (are, do exist) | |
- [i] 〜ろ (-ro) is used for the spoken imperative form, while 〜よ (-yo) is used for the written imperative form.[19]
- [ii] Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used.[2]
Non‑volitional verbs, such as 分かる (wakaru, to understand) and できる (dekiru, to be able), have imperative forms (for these two verbs, 分かれ (wakare) and できろ (dekiro)), but these appear to be relatively recent innovations, and usage may be limited to informal contexts.
Potential
editThe potential form describes the capability of doing something.[64] It is also used to ask favors from others, just as "Can you…?" does in English. However, unlike in English, the potential form does not request permission; the phrase この林檎が食べられる？ (kono ringo ga taberareru?, "Can I eat this apple?" ) is always understood to mean "Do I have the ability to eat this apple?" or "Is this apple edible?" (but never "May I eat this apple?" ).
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I can read Japanese. | 日本語が読める (nihongo ga yomeru) | capability |
| Can you buy some coffee? | コーヒーが買える？ (kōhii ga kaeru?) | requesting favors |
For transitive verbs, the potential form uses the が (ga) particle to mark direct objects, instead of the を (o) particle.
Potential: Conjugation table
editThe potential form is created by using the kanōkei base, followed by the る・(ら)れる (ru/(ra)reru) suffix. する (suru, to do) has its own suppletive potential form 出来る (dekiru, can do). For ichidan verbs and 来る (kuru), the potential form and the passive form have an identical conjugation pattern with the same られる (rareru) suffix. This makes it impossible to distinguish whether an ichidan verb adopts a passive or potential function without contextual information.
However, in colloquial speech the ら (ra) is removed from られる (rareru) in a phenomenon known as ら抜き言葉 (ranuki kotoba).[64] For example, こられる (korareru, can come) becomes これる (koreru). This contraction is specific to the potential form, and is not reciprocated in the passive form.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Potential form |
|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the え row, then add る | |
| 作る (tsukuru, make) [i] | 作る → れ ＋ る | 作れる (tsukureru, can make) |
| 言う (iu, say) | 言う → え ＋ る | 言える (ieru, can say) |
| 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ → て ＋ る | 持てる (moteru, can carry) |
| 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → せ ＋ る | 探せる (sagaseru, can look for) |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る then add (ら)れる | |
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る ＋ (ら)れる | 見(ら)れる (mi(ra)reru, can see) |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める ＋ (ら)れる | 始め(ら)れる (hajime(ra)reru, can begin) |
| Irregular verbs | ||
| 来る (kuru, come) | くる → こ ＋ (ら)れる | こ(ら)れる (ko(ra)reru, can come) |
| する (suru, do) | する → できる | できる (dekiru, can do) |
| Special exceptions | ||
| 分かる (wakaru, understand) [ii] | 分かる → れ ＋ る | 分かれる (wakareru, can understand) |
| ある (aru, exist) | Does not conjugate.[2] | |
- [i] For godan verbs ending in 〜る (-ru), the potential conjugation is syncretic with the colloquial form of ichidan verbs.
- [ii] Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used. 分かる (wakaru) expresses potential innately without having to conjugate it to the potential form.
Potential: Grammatical compatibility
editAfter conjugating into the potential form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a potential verb (e.g. 言える (ieru, can say)) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the te form (て形, te kei) to join sequential statements (言えて (iete)), or the conjunctive form to append the polite -masu (〜ます) auxiliary verb (言えます (iemasu)).
Conditional
editThe conditional form (also known as the "hypothetical form", "provisional form" and the "provisional conditional eba form") is broadly equivalent to the English conditionals "if…" or "when…". It describes a condition that provides a specific result, with emphasis on the condition.[65] The conditional form is used to describe hypothetical scenarios or general truths.[66]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| If you see it, you'll understand. | 見れば分かる (mireba wakaru) | hypothetical |
| When you multiply 3 by 4, it becomes 12. | ３に４を掛ければ１２になる (san ni yon o kakereba jūni ni naru) | general truths |
Conditional: Conjugation table
editThe conditional form is created by using the kateikei base, followed by the ば (ba) suffix.
| Dictionary form | Pattern [2] | Conditional form |
|---|---|---|
| Godan verbs | Shift the 〜〇 kana to the え row, then add ば | |
| 作る (tsukuru, make) [i] | 作る → れ ＋ ば | 作れば (tsukureba, if to make) |
| 言う (iu, say) | 言う → え ＋ ば | 言えば (ieba, if to say) |
| 持つ (motsu, carry) | 持つ → て ＋ ば | 持てば (moteba, if to carry) |
| 探す (sagasu, look for) | 探す → せ ＋ ば | 探せば (sagaseba, if to look for) |
| Ichidan verbs | Remove る then add れば | |
| 見る (miru, see) | 見る ＋ れば | 見れば (mireba, if to see) |
| 始める (hajimeru, begin) | 始める ＋ れば | 始めれば (hajimereba, if to begin) |
| Irregular verbs | ||
| 来る (kuru, come) | 来る → れ ＋ ば | 来れば (kureba, if to come) |
| する (suru, do) | する → れ ＋ ば | すれば (sureba, if to do) |
| Special conjugations | ||
| 〜ない (-nai, not) | 〜ない → けれ ＋ ば | 〜なければ (-nakereba, if not) [ii] |
- [i] For godan verbs ending in 〜る (-ru), the conditional conjugation is syncretic with ichidan verbs.
- [ii] Colloquially the 〜なければ (-nakereba) form is contracted to 〜なきゃ (-nakya) or 〜なくちゃ (-nakucha), which comes from 〜なくては (-nakutewa). For example, 行かなければ (ikanakereba) could become 行かなきゃ (ikanakya) or 行かなくちゃ (ikanakucha).
Conditional: Advanced usage
editIn its negative conjugation (〜なければ, -nakereba), the conditional form can express obligation or insistence by attaching to 〜ならない (-naranai, to not happen) or 〜なりません (-narimasen, to not happen (polite) ). This pattern of grammar is a double negative which loosely translates to "to avoid that action, will not happen". Semantically cancelling out the negation becomes "to do that action, will happen" ; however the true meaning is "I must do that action".[67][68]
| English | Japanese | Function |
|---|---|---|
| I have to help. | 手伝わなければならない (tetsudawanakereba naranai) | obligation |
| I must go to the dentist. | 歯医者に行かなければならない (haisha ni ikanakereba naranai) | insistence |
| Your self‑introduction has to be in Japanese. | 自己紹介は日本語でなければならないよ (jiko shoukai wa nihongo denakereba naranai yo) | obligation / insistence |
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b Banno et al. 2020a, pp. 86–88, "Lesson 3, Grammar 1: Verb Conjugation".
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 576–579, "Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs).
- ^ McClain 1981, pp. 5–6, "Verbs: Functions of Six Bases".
- ^ a b c Nakano 2008, pp. 103–105, "2.可能表現の形態とその内容の変遷ー動作主体性の発達" (Potential).
- ^ a b c Miyake 2016, "可能形" (Potential).
- ^ a b Nakamura 2009, "音便形" (Euphonic Change).
- ^ a b Sakaki 2019, "音便形" (Euphonic Change).
- ^ a b Koyanagi 2014, "意志形" (Volitional).
- ^ a b c McClain 1981, p. 6, "Verbs: 3. Third Base" (終止形/連体形; Conclusive/Attributive Base).
- ^ a b c d e Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 580–581, "Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Adjectives).
- ^ McClain 1981, pp. 6–13, "Verbs: Conjugation Charts".
- ^ McClain 1981, p. 6, "Verbs: 4. Fourth Base" (仮定形 Conditional Base).
- ^ McClain 1981, p. 6, "Verbs: 5. Fifth Base" (命令形 Imperative Base).
- ^ McClain 1981, p. 5, "Verbs: 1. First Base" (未然形 Negative Base).
- ^ a b McClain 1981, p. 6, "Verbs: 6. Sixth Base" (推量形 Tentative Base).
- ^ McClain 1981, pp. 5–6, "Verbs: 2. Second Base" (連用形 Continuative Base).
- ^ a b Digital Daijisen Dictionary: Onbinkei.
- ^ McClain 1981, p. 38-46, "Verb-Following Expressions: I. Expressions which follow the First Base of the Verb".
- ^ a b Makino & Tsutsui 1989, p. 578, "Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs: Footnote 7).
- ^ Shirane 2005, pp. 24–25, "3.1 The Six Inflected Forms".
- ^ a b Chamberlain 1888, p. 148, "The Verb: Peculiarities of the First Conjugation ¶ 239".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020a, pp. 232–233, "Lesson 22, Grammar 1: Causative Sentences".
- ^ McClain 1981, p. 8-11, "Verbs: Conjugation of Japanese Verbs: II. Consonant-stem verbs".
- ^ McClain 1981, p. 10-11, "Verbs: Conjugation of Japanese Verbs: III. Irregular verbs".
- ^ McClain 1981, pp. 39–86, "Verb-Following Expressions".
- ^ McClain 1981, p. 17-18, "Verbs: How to form Ta- and Te-form of Verbs: II. Consonant stem verbs".
- ^ Lombardo et al. 2019.
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 100–102, "Main Entries: darō だろう".
- ^ a b Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 452–457, "Main Entries: ~tara 〜たら".
- ^ a b Banno et al. 2020a, pp. 190–191, "Lesson 8, Grammar 1: Short Forms".
- ^ a b c Banno et al. 2020b, p. 234, "Lesson 22, Grammar 3: Verb Stem + なさい".
- ^ a b c Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 271–273, "Main Entries: ~nai de 〜ないで".
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1995, pp. 315–317, "Main Entries: -nu ぬ".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020a, p. 214, "Lesson 9, Grammar 1: Past Tense Short Forms".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020a, pp. 259–260, "Lesson 11, Grammar 2: 〜たり〜たりする".
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 458–461, "Main Entries: ~tari ~tari suru 〜たり〜たりする".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020b, pp. 119–121, "Lesson 17, Grammar 3: 〜たら".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020a, pp. 150–151, "Lesson 6, Grammar 1: Te-form".
- ^ a b c Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 464–467, "Main Entries: -te て".
- ^ a b c d Makino & Tsutsui 1995, pp. 556–560, "Main Entries: Vmasu".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020a, p. 152, "Lesson 6, Grammar 4: 〜てもいいです, Grammar 5: 〜てはいけません".
- ^ a b Makino & Tsutsui 1989, p. 593, "Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important Expressions: F. Vte+__".
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 403–406, "Main Entries: shimau しまう".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020a, p. 151, "Lesson 6, Grammar 2: 〜てください".
- ^ Tofugu: Stem Form.
- ^ a b Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 589–590, "Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important Expressions: B. Vmasu+__".
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1995, pp. 561–563, "Main Entries: Vmasu as a Noun".
- ^ Kim 2017, "Polite Form and Verb Stems".
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 297–299, "Main Entries: ni⁵ に".
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1995, pp. 564–567, "Main Entries: wa は".
- ^ Kamermans 2010, p. 70, "Verb grammar — § 2.3 Noun inflection".
- ^ Kamiya 2001, p. 36, "Auxiliaries".
- ^ McClain 1981, p. 13, "Conjugation of Suffix masu ます".
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1995, p. 626, "Appendix 2 Compound Verbs".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020b, pp. 74–75, "Lesson 15, Grammar 1: Volitional Form".
- ^ a b Digital Daijisen Dictionary: Yō.
- ^ Banno et al. 2020b, p. 75, "Lesson 15, Grammar 2: Volitional Form + と思っています".
- ^ Lampkin 2010, pp. 14–40.
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 33–35, "Characteristics of Japanese Grammar: 5. Passive".
- ^ a b Banno et al. 2020b, pp. 210–212, "Lesson 21, Grammar 1: Passive Sentences".
- ^ a b c Banno et al. 2020b, pp. 232–233, "Lesson 22, Grammar 1: Causative Sentences".
- ^ Tofugu: 〜させる (Causative).
- ^ Banno et al. 2020b, pp. 254–255, "Lesson 23, Grammar 1: Causative-passive Sentences".
- ^ a b Banno et al. 2020b, pp. 27–28, "Lesson 13, Grammar 1: Potential Verbs".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020b, pp. 234–235, "Lesson 22, Grammar 4: 〜ば".
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 81–83, "Main Entries: ba ば".
- ^ Banno et al. 2020a, pp. 279–280, "Lesson 12, Grammar 5: 〜なければいけません/〜なきゃいけません".
- ^ Makino & Tsutsui 1989, pp. 274–276, "Main Entries: ~nakereba naranai 〜なければならない" (Must).
Bibliography
edit- Banno, Eri; Ikeda, Yoko; Ohno, Yutaka; Shinagawa, Chikako; Tokashiki, Kyoko (2020). GENKI: An Integrated Course in Elementary Japanese I (3 ed.). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Times. ISBN 978-4-7890-1730-5.
- Banno, Eri; Ikeda, Yoko; Ohno, Yutaka; Shinagawa, Chikako; Tokashiki, Kyoko (2020). GENKI: An Integrated Course in Elementary Japanese II (3 ed.). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Times. ISBN 978-4-7890-1732-9.
- Chamberlain, Basil Hall (1888). A Handbook of Colloquial Japanese (PDF) (1 ed.). London, England: Trübner & Co. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-09-06.
- "Onbinkei (onbinkei) no imi (dejitaru daijisen)" 音便形（おんびんけい）の意味 (デジタル大辞泉) [Meaning of euphonic change form (Digital Daijisen Dictionary)]. goo辞書 (in Japanese). Tokyo, Japan: 株式会社小学館. April 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-06-07. Retrieved 2021-06-13.
- "Yō no imi (dejitaru daijisen)" ようの意味 (デジタル大辞泉) [Meaning of yō (Digital Daijisen Dictionary)]. goo辞書 (in Japanese). Tokyo, Japan: 株式会社小学館. April 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-05-23. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
- Kamermans, Michiel (2010-03-15). An introduction to Japanese - Syntax, Grammar & Language. Rotterdam, Netherlands: SJGR Publishing. ISBN 978-9081507110.
- Kamiya, Taeko (2001). The Handbook of Japanese Verbs. Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha International. ISBN 978-4-7700-2683-5.
- Kim, Tae (2017-10-16). "Polite Form and Verb Stems". Tae Kim's Guide to Learning Japanese. Archived from the original on 2021-03-10. Retrieved 2021-05-04.
- 小柳, 智一 (March 2014). "Chūō-go ni okeru dōshi katsuyō no rekishi" 中央語における動詞活用の歴史 [History of language verb conjugation in central Japan] (PDF). 全国方言文法辞典資料集 (in Japanese). 2: 活用体系. Japan: 方言文法研究会: 20–29. NCID: BB1529267X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-10-20.
- Lampkin, Rita (2010-05-14). Japanese Verbs & Essentials of Grammar (3 ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-171363-4.
- Lombardo, Cameron; Stainton, Jenny; Suzuki, Mami; Norota, Moeko (2019-09-24). "だ and です : Venturing Beyond Textbook Rules into Real-Life Use". Tofugu. Archived from the original on 2021-04-29.
- Makino, Seiichi; Tsutsui, Michio (1989). A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar (80 ed.). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Times. ISBN 978-47-89004-54-1.
- Makino, Seiichi; Tsutsui, Michio (1995). A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar (50 ed.). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Times. ISBN 978-4-7890-0775-7.
- McClain, Yoko (1981). Handbook of modern Japanese grammar: including lists of words and expressions with English equivalents for reading aid. Tokyo, Japan: The Hokuseido Press. ISBN 4-590-00570-0.
- 三宅, 俊浩 (2016-04-01). "Kanō dōshi no seiritsu" 可能動詞の成立 [Origin of the Potential Verb in Japanese] (PDF). 日本語の研究 (in Japanese). 12 (2): 1–17. doi:10.20666/nihongonokenkyu.12.2_1. Archived from the original on 2017-11-20.
- 中村, 雅之 (2009-03-31). "Nihongo dōshi no onbin ni tsuite" 日本語動詞の音便について [About the euphonic changes of Japanese verbs] (PDF). Kotonoha (in Japanese) (76). Japan: 古代文字資料館: 1–3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-08-19.
- 中野, 琴代 (September 2008). "Nihongo no kanō dōshi" 日本語の可能動詞 [The potential verb in Japanese] (PDF). 下関市立大学論集 (in Japanese). 52 (1–2). 下関市立大学学会: 103–114. ISSN 0387-5296. OCLC 183202722. SC20052000109. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-01-26.
- 坂喜, 美佳 (2019-01-17). "Dōshi no onbin no hōgen-gaku-teki kenkyū ― sa gyō ionbin o chūshin to shite" 動詞の音便の方言学的研究―サ行イ音便を中心として― [Dialectological study of verb euphonic changes - focusing on the "sa" column's euphonic change from "-i"] (PDF) (Thesis) (in Japanese). 東北大学 (Tohoku University). Archived from the original on 2021-06-28.
- Shirane, Haruo (2005). Classical Japanese: A Grammar. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13524-5.
- "Stem Form". Tofugu. 2019-11-23. Archived from the original on 2021-05-18. Retrieved 2021-05-04.
- "〜させる (Causative)". Tofugu. 2020-06-08. Archived from the original on 2021-05-11. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
External links
edit
- Japanese Verb Conjugator, online tool giving all forms for any verb
- Japanese Verb Conjugator, online tool with romaji, kana, and kanji output
- JLearn.net, an online Japanese dictionary that accepts conjugated terms and returns the root verb
- [1] Guide to conjugation te form of Japanese verbs
- [2] List of Free Online Verb Dictionaries
- [3] Handbook of Japanese Verbs - National Institute of Japanese Language and Linguistics