Wikipedia

Religion in Tamil Nadu

(Redirected from Islam in Tamil Nadu)

Religion in Tamil Nadu consists of various religions practiced by the populace of the state. Hinduism is the predominant religion in the state with significant Christian and Muslim minorities. As a home to a multitude of religions, the Tamil culture reflects the influence of the same. Various places of worship are spread across the state.

Demographics

edit

Religion in Tamil Nadu (2011)[1]

  Hinduism (87.58%)
  Christianity (6.12%)
  Islam (5.86%)
  Jainism (0.12%)
  Others/Not stated (0.31%)
Religion in Tamil Nadu
Religion 2001 2011
Population[2] % of Population Population[3] % of Population
Hinduism 54,985,079 88.1 63,188,168 87.58
Christianity 3,785,060 6.06 4,418,331 6.12
Islam 3,470,647 5.56 4,229,479 5.86
Jainism 83,359 0.13 89,265 0.12
Sikhism 9,545 0.01 14,601 0.02
Buddhism 5,393 0.01 11,186 0.02
Other 7,252 0.01 7,414 0.01
Not stated NA 0 188,586 0.26
Total 62,405,679 100 72,147,030 100

Hinduism

edit
Main article: Hinduism in Tamil Nadu

As per the Sangam literature, the Sangam landscape (300 BCE to 300 CE) was classified into five categories known as thinais, which were associated with a Hindu deity: Murugan in kurinji (hills), Thirumal in mullai (forests), Indiran in marutham (plains), Varunan in the neithal (coasts), and Kotravai in palai (desert).[4] Thirumal is indicated as a deity during the Sangam era who was regarded as Paramporul ("the supreme one") and also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in various Sangam literature.[5][6] While Shiva-worship existed in the Shaivite culture as a part of the Tamil pantheon, Murugan became regarded as the Tamil kadavul ("God of the Tamils").[7][8][9] In the 7th century CE, the Pandyas and Pallavas, supporters of Buddhism and Jainism, transitioned to become patrons of Hinduism. This shift occurred with the revival of Saivism and Vaishnavism during the Bhakti movement spearheaded by the Alwars and Nayanmars.[10][11] Hinduism developed in the temples and mathas of medieval Tamil Nadu with self-conscious rejection of Jain practices.[12]

 
Aiyyan̲ār, guardian folk deity of Tamils

In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son of Shiva and Parvati; Pillayar is regarded as the eldest son and venerated as the Mudanmudar kadavul ("foremost god").[13] The worship of Amman, also called Mariamman, is thought to have been derived from an ancient mother goddess, and is also very common.[14][15] In rural areas, local deities, called Aiyyan̲ār (also known as Karuppan, Karrupasami), are worshipped who are thought to protect the villages from harm.[14][16]

As of the 21st century, majority of the population of Tamil Nadu are adherents of Hinduism with more than 89% of the population adhering to the same.[17][1] As a majority religion, the influence of Hinduism is seen widely in the Tamil culture including literature, music and dance. Most visual arts are religious in some form and usually centers on Hinduism, although the religious element might be a vehicle to represent universal and, occasionally, humanist themes.[18] Visual art ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailed bronze icons and frescoes and murals on temple walls.[19] [20]

 
A Chola bronze statue of Nataraja, god of dance, to whom Bharatanatyam is often dedicated

Majority of the available literature from the Sangam period was Hindu and categorized in the tenth century CE into two categories based roughly on chronology as the patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku ("the eighteen greater text series") comprising Ettuthogai (or Ettuttokai, "Eight Anthologies") and the Pattuppāṭṭu ("Ten Idylls").[21] The Tamil literature that followed in the next 300 years after the Sangam period is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature.[22][23] Tirukkural is a book on ethics, by Thiruvalluvar.[24] Prominent works include Ramavataram, written in 12th century CE by Kambar and Tiruppugal by Arunagirinathar in 14th century CE.[25][26]

Apart from traditional instruments from the Sangam period, Nadaswaram, a reed instrument that is often accompanied by the thavil, a type of drum instrument are the major musical instruments used in temples and weddings.[27] The traditional music of Tamil Nadu is known as Carnatic music, which includes rhythmic and structured music dedicated to Gods.[28][29][30] Bharatanatyam is a major genre of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamilakam and is represented to invoke Nataraja, a form of Shiva.[31][32] There are many folk dance forms that originated and are practiced in the region which are done in veneration to Hindu gods and goddesses such as Kavadiattam,[33][34] Mayilattam,[35][36] Bhagavatha nadanam, Devarattam, Kai silambattam, Kuravanji and Urumiattam.[37] Koothu is a form of street theater that consists of a play performance which consists of dance along with music, narration and singing, usually dedicated to goddesses such as Mariamman with stories drawn from Hindu epics such as Ramayana and Mahabharata, mythology and folklore.[38][39] The dance is accompanied by music played from traditional instruments and a kattiyakaran narrates the story during the performance.[40]

Pongal is a major and multi-day harvest festival dedicated to the Surya, the Sun God.[41] Puthandu is known as Tamil New Year which marks the first day of year on the Tamil calendar.[42] Other prominent festivals include Karthikai Deepam,[43][44] Thaipusam,[45][46] Aadi Perukku,[47] and Panguni Uthiram.[48]

 
Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam, the largest functioning temple in India

Dravidian architecture is the distinct style of rock architecture from the state, where the koils considered of porches or Mantapas preceding the door leading to the sanctum, Gate-pyramids or Gopurams in quadrangular enclosures that surround the temple, Pillared halls and a tank called the Kalyani or Pushkarni.[49][50] The Gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate at the entrance of the temple forms a prominent feature of the Hindu temples of the Dravidian style.[51] There are a number of rock-cut cave-temples established by the ancient Tamil kings and later by Pandyas and Pallavas.[52] The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, built by the Pallavas in the 7th and 8th centuries has more than forty rock-cut temples and monoliths including one of the largest open-air rock reliefs in the world.[53][54]

 
Meenakshi Temple at Madurai. The large Gopuram is a hall-mark of Dravidian architecture

There are more than 34,000 temples in Tamil Nadu built across various periods some of which are several centuries old.[55] Most temples follow the Dravidian architecture, a distinct style of rock architecture.[56] 84 of the 108 Divya Desams, which are Vishnu and Lakshmi temples that is mentioned in the works of the Alvars are located in Tamil Nadu.[57] Paadal Petra Sthalam are 276 Shaivite temples that are revered in the verses of Nayanars in the 6th-9th century CE.[58] Pancha Bhuta Sthalam refers to temples dedicated to Shiva, each representing a manifestation of the five prime elements of nature.[59] Arupadaiveedu are six temples which are dedicated Murugan.[60] Madurai also called as "Temple city" consists of many temples including the massive Meenakshi Amman Temple with Kanchipuram, considered as one of the seven great holy cities being another major temple town with many temples dating back to the Pallava period.[61][62] Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple is the largest temple complex in India and the biggest functioning Hindu temple in the world with a 236 feet (72 m) tall Rajagopuram, one of the tallest in the world.[63]

Ramanathaswamy Temple located at Rameswaram island forms a part of Ram setu and is said to be sanctified by the lord Rama when he crossed the island on his journey to rescue his wife, Sita from the Ravana.[64] Namakkal Anjaneyar Temple hosts a 18 ft (5.5 m) tall Hanuman statue, one of the tallest in India.[65] There are a lot of temples devoted to lord Ganesha, major of which are the Uchippillaiyar temple in Tiruchirappalli, Eachanari Vinayagar temple in Coimbatore hosting a 6.3 ft (1.9 m) tall idol and Karpaka Vinayakar temple in Pillayarapatti.[66][67] There are a number of hill temples dedicated to lord Murugan and Amman temples across the state.[68] Swami Vivekananda is said to have attained enlightenment on a rock, located off the coast of Kanniyakumari, which houses the Vivekananda Rock Memorial since 1970.[69]

Christianity

edit
Main article: Christianity in Tamil Nadu
 
The 16th-century Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health at Velankanni

The Christian apostle, St. Thomas, is believed to have landed in the Malabar Coast in 52 CE and built St. Mary's Church in Thiruvithamcode, Kanyakumari district in 63 AD and preached in the area around present day Chennai till 70 CE.[70] The Santhome Church, which was originally built by the Portuguese in 1523, is believed to house the remains of St. Thomas and was rebuilt in 1893 in neo-Gothic style.[71] In 1578, the Portuguese published a book in old Tamil script named 'Thambiraan Vanakkam', the first book in any Indian language to be printed and published.[72] The Europeans started to establishing trade centers from the 16th century CE along the eastern coast of the state, and the region was under the rule of British Raj from the 18th century to the mid 20th century.[73][74][75] This also brought Christian missionaries, who established churches and introduced the religion to various parts of the state.[76]

As per the 2011 census, Christianity is the second largest religion in the state with the total number of Christians numbering 4,418,331, forming 6.12% of the total population of the state.[1] There is a larger proportion of Christians in the southern districts, Kanyakumari (46%), Thoothukudi (16.7%) and Tirunelveli (10.6%).[77][78] The 16th-century Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health is located at Velankanni, about 12 km (7.5 mi) south of Nagapattinam on the Eastern coast. The town declared as a holy city by the pope is known as the 'Lourdes of the East'.[79]

Islam

edit
Main article: Tamil Muslim
 
Erwadi Dargah, one of the oldest mosques

Islam was introduced due to the influence from Arab region and the majority of the muslims are native Tamils who converted on the influence of Cheraman Perumal.[80] Unlike from other parts of India, nearly 90% of the muslims in the state speak Tamil rather than Urdu as their mother tongue.[81][82] Arabic inscriptions from the ninth century CE at Kayalpatnam, detail about endowments given to the mosques by Pandyas.[83] The earliest literary work in the community was the Palsanthmalai from the 13th century with the most popular being the epic Seerapuranam by Umaru Pulavar in the 17th century[84][85]

As of 2011, Islam is the third largest religion in the state with 4,229,479 followers, making up 5.86% of the population.[1] The Kilakarai Jumma Masjid, built in the 7th century CE, has prominent Dravidian architectural characteristics and is one of the oldest mosques in India.[86] Erwadi houses an 840-year-old mosque and the annual santhanakoodu festival held during the Islamic month of Dhul Qidah attracts people of all faiths from different regions.[87] Nagore Dargah where the urs festival is celebrated every year and attracts pilgrims from both sufi Islam and Hinduism.[88]

Jainism

edit
Main article: Jainism in Tamil Nadu
 
Mahavira temple at Tirumalai

Tamil Jains existed from the sangam era with inscriptions and drip-ledges from first century BC to sixth century AD and temple monuments likely built by Digambara Jains in the ninth century found in Chitharal and several Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, stone beds and sculptures from more than 2,200 years ago found in Samanar hills.[89][90] They were known as Camaṇar in Tamil and the Sangam literature of Silappatikaram, Nālaṭiyār and Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi were attributed to Jain authors.[91] The early Jains were part of the Digambara sect and use the title Nainar.[92][93] The Kalabhra dynasty, who ruled over the ancient Tamil country in the 3rd–7th century CE were patrons of Jainism.[94][95] Some of the early kings of the Cheras, Pandyas and Pallavas patronized Jainism.[96][11]

As of 2011, Jainism is the fourth largest religion in the state with 89,265 (0.12%) adherents.[1] The northern districts of Tiruvannamalai, Vellore, Cuddalore and Villupuram have a significant Jain population.[97] They generally are vegetarians and retain some of the old Jain customs.[98]

Kalugumalai consist of three rock-cut temples–Kalugumalai Jain Beds, Vettuvan Koil and Kalugasalamoorthy Temple, with rock relief sculptures dating back to Pandya period of 8th to 9th century.[99] Major Jain temples include Kanchi Trilokyanatha temple, Chitharal Jain Temple, Mannargudi Mallinatha Swamy Temple, Vijayamangalam Jain temple, Alagramam Jain Temple, Poondi Arugar Temple, Thanjavur Adisvaraswamy Jain Temple and Kumbakonam Chandraprabha Jain Temple.[100][101] Tirumalai is an ancient Jain temple complex in the outskirts of Tirvannamalai that houses caves and Jain temples and a 16 feet (4.9 m) high sculpture of Neminatha dated from the 12th century and the tallest Jain image in Tamil Nadu.[102]

Buddhism

edit

Buddhism was influential in Tamil Nadu before the later middle ages with the early Pandyas and Pallavas patronizing Buddhism.[96][103] There is a mention of a Buddhist pilgrimage route from Ceylon to Bodh Gaya via Kaveripattinam in ancient Tamilakam with ruins of a 4th century Buddhist monastery, a Buddha statue and a Buddhapada (footprint of the Buddha) found in the region.[104][105] Nākappaṭṭinam is found in the Burmese historical text of the 3rd century BCE, mentioning a Vihāra from the period of Ashoka.[106] Various scholarly works in Tamil and Pali, dating back to the 5th-7th century CE have been attributed to Tamil Buddhist scholars, with the most well-known being the epic-poem Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar.[107][108] Buddhism saw some revival from the late 9th century CE and the Chudamani Vihara in Nagapattinam was built by the Srivijaya king Maravijayottunggavarman under the patronage of Raja Raja Chola I in early 11th century CE with various Buddha bronze statues dated between 11th and 16th century CE being found in the region.[106] As per the 2011 census, 11,186 people identified as followers of Buddhism, which was 0.02% of the total population of Tamil Nadu.[1]

Sikhism

edit

As of 2011, Sikhs numbered 14,601 (0.02%) in the total population of Tamil Nadu.[1] Majority of the Sikhs are people who migrated to Tamil Nadu for agricultural and business purposes.[109] Sikhs have settled in most major cities and have established various Gurudwaras and educational institutions in the state.[110]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b c d e f g Population by religion community – 2011 (Report). The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015.
  2. ^ Total population by religious communities (Report). Government of India. Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
  3. ^ Indian Census 2011 (Report). Government of India. Archived from the original on 13 September 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
  4. ^ Chandramouli, C. (2004). Arts and Crafts of Tamil Nadu. Directorate of Census Operations. p. 74.
  5. ^ Hardy, Friedhelm (2015). Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 156. ISBN 978-81-208-3816-1.
  6. ^ Padmaja, T. (2002). Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu. Abhinav Publications. p. 27. ISBN 978-81-7017-398-4.
  7. ^ Clothey, Fred W. (2019). The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 34. ISBN 978-3-11-080410-2.
  8. ^ Mahadevan, Iravatham (2006). A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery. Harappa. Archived from the original on 4 September 2006.
  9. ^ Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig (2006). Essential Hinduism. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 45.
  10. ^ Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-19-560686-7.
  11. ^ a b Pillai, P. Govinda (4 October 2022). "Chapter 11". The Bhakti Movement: Renaissance or Revivalism?. Taylor & Francis. pp. Thirdly, the movement had blossomed first down south or the Tamil country. ISBN 978-1-000-78039-0.
  12. ^ Cort, John (1998). Open boundaries: Jain communities and culture in Indian history. State University of New York Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-7914-9985-6.
  13. ^ Tamil Civilization:Quarterly Research Journal of the Tamil University. Vol. 5. University of Michigan. 1987. p. 9.
  14. ^ a b Neuenhofer, Christa (2012). Ayyanar and Mariamman, Folk Deities in South India. Blurb, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-457-99010-6.
  15. ^ "Principles and Practice of Hindu Religion". Hindu Heritage Study Program. Archived from the original on 14 November 2006. Retrieved 5 December 2006.
  16. ^ Jarzombek, Mark (2009). "Horse Shrines in Tamil India: Reflections on Modernity" (PDF). Future Anterior. 4 (1): 18–36. doi:10.1353/fta.0.0031.
  17. ^ Census 2001 – Statewise population by Religion (Report). Government of India. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
  18. ^ Coomaraswamy, A.K. (2007). Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought. World Wisdom Books. ISBN 978-1-933-31634-5.
  19. ^ Ganapathi, V. "Shilpaic literature of the tamils". INTAMM. Retrieved 4 December 2006.
  20. ^ "The Ajanta of TamilNadu". The Tribune. 27 November 2005. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  21. ^ Takahashi, Takanobu (1995). Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics. BRILL Academic. pp. 1–3. ISBN 90-04-10042-3.
  22. ^ Zvelebil, Kamil (1992). Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. BRILL Academic. pp. 12–13. ISBN 90-04-09365-6.
  23. ^ T.V. Mahalingam (1981). Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference. South Indian History Congress. pp. 28–34.
  24. ^ Pillai, M. S. (1994). Tamil literature. New Delhi: Asian Education Service. ISBN 978-8-120-60955-6.
  25. ^ Bergunder, Michael; Frese, Heiko; Schröder, Ulrike (2011). Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India. Primus Books. p. 107. ISBN 978-9-380-60721-4.
  26. ^ P S Sundaram (3 May 2002). Kamba Ramayana. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 18–. ISBN 978-9-351-18100-2.
  27. ^ Doraisamy, Ganavya (5 August 2014). Sound of Indian Music. Lulu. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-3045-0409-8.
  28. ^ "Karnatak music". Britannica. Retrieved 1 March 2023.
  29. ^ Kiruṣṇan̲, Rājam (2002). When the Kurinji Blooms. Orient BlackSwan. p. 124. ISBN 978-8-125-01619-9.
  30. ^ Jeff Todd Titon; Svanibor Pettan, eds. (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology. Oxford University Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-0-199-35171-8.
  31. ^ "Bharata-natyam". Britannica. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  32. ^ Banerjee, Projesh (1983). Indian Ballet Dancing. New Jersey: Abhinav Publications. p. 43.
  33. ^ Kent, Alexandra (2005). Divinity and Diversity: A Hindu Revitalization Movement in Malaysia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-8-791-11489-2.
  34. ^ Hume, Lynne (2020). Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities Through the Senses. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-18987-2.
  35. ^ Madhavan, Arya (2010). Kudiyattam Theatre and the Actor's Consciousness. Brill. p. 113. ISBN 978-90-420-2799-2.
  36. ^ Knapp, Stephen (2005). The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment, and Illumination. CreateSpace. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-721-03274-7.
  37. ^ Narayan, M.K.V. (2007). Flipside of Hindu Symbolism:Sociological and Scientific Linkages in Hinduism. Fultus Corporation. p. 181. ISBN 978-1-596-82117-0.
  38. ^ Axel Michaels; Christoph Wulf, eds. (2012). Images of the Body in India: South Asian and European Perspectives on Rituals and Performativity. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-70392-8.
  39. ^ Wolf, Gita; Geetha, V.; Ravishankar, Anushka (2003). Masks and Performance with Everyday Materials. Tara Publishing. p. 36-39. ISBN 978-8-186-21147-2.
  40. ^ "Koothu: The Expressive Dance-Drama of Tamil Nadu". Second Nature. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  41. ^ Denise Cush; Catherine A. Robinson; Michael York (2008). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Psychology Press. pp. 610–611. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0.
  42. ^ Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. p. 406. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
  43. ^ Spagnoli, Cathy; Samanna, Paramasivam (1999). Jasmine and Coconuts: South Indian Tales. Libraries Unlimited. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-56308-576-5.
  44. ^ Gajrani, S. (2004). History, Religion and Culture of India. Gyan Publishing House. p. 207. ISBN 978-81-8205-061-7.
  45. ^ Kent, Alexandra (2005). Divinity and Diversity: A Hindu Revitalization Movement in Malaysia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-8-7911-1489-2.
  46. ^ Hume, Lynne (2020). Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities Through the Senses. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-0001-8987-2.
  47. ^ "An ode to Aadi and Ayyanar". Indian Express. 26 July 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  48. ^ Chambers, James (2015). Holiday Symbols & Customs. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-780-81365-6.
  49. ^ Fergusson, James (1997) [1910]. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (3rd ed.). New Delhi: Low Price Publications. p. 309.
  50. ^ Harman, William P. (9 October 1992). The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 6. ISBN 978-8-1208-0810-2.
  51. ^ Ching, Francis D.K.; et al. (2007). A Global History of Architecture. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 762. ISBN 978-0-4712-6892-5.
  52. ^ Dayalan, D. (2014). Cave-temples in the Regions of the Pāṇdya, Muttaraiya, Atiyamān̤ and Āy Dynasties in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Archaeological Survey of India.
  53. ^ James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 399. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
  54. ^ National Geographic (2008). Sacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations. National Geographic Society. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-4262-0336-7.
  55. ^ "Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh build temple ties to boost tourism". The Times of India. 10 August 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  56. ^ Harman, William P. (9 October 1992). The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 6. ISBN 978-8-1208-0810-2.
  57. ^ P.M., Neelakrishnan (April 1992). "Sri Divya Desams". Ancient Science of Life. 11 (3). Coimbatore: Sarva Sastra Maha Vidyalaya: 193–7. PMC 3336602. PMID 22556587.
  58. ^ "A comprehensive description of the 276 Shivastalams glorified by the Tevaram hymns". Templenet. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
  59. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2007). Historical dictionary of the Tamils. United States: Scarecrow Press, INC. ISBN 978-0-470-82958-5.
  60. ^ Aiyar, P.V.Jagadisa (1982). South Indian Shrines: Illustrated. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. pp. 191–203. ISBN 978-0-4708-2958-5.
  61. ^ "Kanchipuram". Britannica. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  62. ^ "Meenakshi Amman Temple". Britannica. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  63. ^ "Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam". UNESCO. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  64. ^ "Rameswaram". Britannica. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  65. ^ "Namakkal Anjaneyar Temple". Government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  66. ^ "Eachanari Vinayagar temple". Government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  67. ^ "Ucchi Pillayar Temple, Rockfort". Government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  68. ^ "Amman temples". Government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  69. ^ "Kanniyakumari". Britannica. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  70. ^ Sathyendran, Nita (16 May 2013). "The church that St. Thomas built". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 13 November 2019.
  71. ^ "Santhome Cathedral". Government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
  72. ^ Madhavan, Karthik (21 June 2010). "Tamil saw its first book in 1578". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
  73. ^ "Rhythms of the Portuguese presence in the Bay of Bengal". Indian Institute of Asian Studies. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  74. ^ "Danish flavour". Frontline. India. 6 November 2009. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
  75. ^ Roberts J. M. (1997). A short history of the world. Helicon publishing Ltd. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-1951-1504-8.
  76. ^ Frykenberg, Robert Eric (26 June 2008). Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present. OUP Oxford. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-1982-6377-7.
  77. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 5 March 2012. Retrieved 29 June 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  78. ^ "Tamil Nadu, with 72 million people, records 80% literacy". The Economic Times. 31 May 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  79. ^ "Velankanni". Government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  80. ^ Jean-Baptiste, Prashant More (1991). "The Marakkayar Muslims of Karikal, South India". Journal of Islamic Studies. 2: 25–44. doi:10.1093/jis/2.1.25. PMC 355923. PMID 15455059 – via JSTOR, Oxford Academic Journals.
  81. ^ Jain, Dhanesh (2003). "Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages". In Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge language family series. London: Routledge. p. 57. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
  82. ^ More, J.B.P. (2007). Muslim identity, print culture and the Dravidian factor in Tamil Nadu. Hyderabad: Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-2632-7.
  83. ^ "Muslims of Tamil Nadu – History, social structure, and current status". Muslim mirror. 13 July 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  84. ^ Narayanan, Vasudha (2003). "Religious Vocabulary and Regional Identity: A Study of the Tamil Cirappuranam ('Life of the Prophet')". In Eaton, Richard M. (ed.). India's Islamic Traditions, 711-1750. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 393–408. ISBN 0-19-568334-X.
  85. ^ "The Diversity in Indian Islam". University of California. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  86. ^ "Mosques in Dravidian-Islamic style: About the Islamic architecture in Tamil Nadu". The Hindu. 23 November 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  87. ^ "Erwadi santhanakoodu festival". Government of India. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  88. ^ Landis, Dan; Albert, Rosita D. (2012). Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives. London: Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-4614-0447-7.
  89. ^ Nagarajan, Saraswathy (17 November 2011). "On the southern tip of India, a village steeped in the past". The Hindu. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  90. ^ Subramanian, T. S. (24 March 2012). "2,200-year-old Tamil-Brahmi inscription found on Samanamalai". The Hindu. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
  91. ^ Chakravarti, M.A. (1944). Jaina Literature in Tamil. Bhartiya Jnanaptha Publication.
  92. ^ Kumar, Suresh Singh (1997). People of India:Tamil Nadu. Vol. 40. Anthropological Survey of India. p. 1437.
  93. ^ Suhasini, G. (2011). "Genetic admixture studies on four in situ evolved, two migrant and twenty-one ethnic populations of Tamil Nadu". Journal of Genetics. 90: 191-202.
  94. ^ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2007). A History of India (4th ed.). London: Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-4153-2920-0. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
  95. ^ Eraly, Abraham (2011). The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-6700-8478-4.
  96. ^ a b Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-19-560686-7.
  97. ^ Thurston, Edgar (2020). Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume II of VII. Library of Alexandria. p. 282. ISBN 978-1-465-58237-9.
  98. ^ Umamaheshwari, R. Reading History with the Tamil Jainas, A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation (Report). Indian Institute of Advanced Study. p. 100.
  99. ^ Rajan, K.V. Soundara (1998). Rock-cut Temple Styles'. Mumbai, India: Somaily Publications. p. 7. ISBN 81-7039-218-7.
  100. ^ Jain, Mahima A. (February 2016). "Looking for Jina Kanchi". The Hindu.
  101. ^ "Chitharal". Tamil Nadu Tourism. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  102. ^ "Arihantagiri – Tirumalai". Jain Heritage centres. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
  103. ^ "Buddhism in Tamil Nadu". The Hindu. 29 March 2011. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  104. ^ Rao, S.R. (1991). "Marine archaeological explorations of Tranquebar-Poompuhar region on Tamil Nadu coast" (PDF). Journal of Marine Archaeology. 2: 6.
  105. ^ Duraiswamy, Dayalan. Role of Archaeology on Maritime Buddhism.
  106. ^ a b Malik, Akhtar (2007). Survey of Buddhist temples and monasteries. Anmol Publications. p. 306. ISBN 978-8-126-13259-1.
  107. ^ Rao Bahadur; Krishnaswāmi Aiyangar (1928). Maṇimekhalai in its Historical Setting. London.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  108. ^ Hammaratana, Hisselle (1964). Buddhism in South India. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
  109. ^ Nath, Akshaya (3 August 2016). "Little Punjab in Tamil Nadu: Bunch of farmers make arid land cultivable in Ramanad". India Today. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  110. ^ The Sikh Review. Vol. 60. Sikh Cultural Centre. 2012. p. 35-40.
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Religion_in_Tamil_Nadu&oldid=1259630371#Islam"