In volcanology, an explosive eruption is a volcanic eruption of the most violent type. A notable example is the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Such eruptions result when sufficient gas has dissolved under pressure within a viscous magma such that expelled lava violently froths into volcanic ash when pressure is suddenly lowered at the vent. Sometimes a lava plug will block the conduit to the summit, and when this occurs, eruptions are more violent. Explosive eruptions can expel as much as 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) per second[1] of rocks, dust, gas and pyroclastic material, averaged over the duration of eruption, that travels at several hundred meters per second as high as 20 km (12 mi) into the atmosphere. This cloud may subsequently collapse, creating a fast-moving pyroclastic flow of hot volcanic matter.
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Physics
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Viscous magmas cool beneath the surface before they erupt. As they do this, bubbles exsolve from the magma. Because the magma is viscous, the bubbles remain trapped in the magma.[2] As the magma nears the surface, the bubbles and thus the magma increase in volume. The pressure of the magma builds until the blockage is blasted out in an explosive eruption through the weakest point in the cone, usually the crater. (However, in the case of the eruption of Mount St. Helens, the pressure was released on the side of the volcano, rather than the crater.[3]). The release of pressure causes more gas to exsolve, doing so explosively. The gas may expand at hundreds of metres per second, expanding upward and outward. As the eruption progresses, a chain reaction causes the magma to be ejected at higher and higher speeds.[2]
Volcanic ash formation
editThe violently expanding gas disperses and breaks up magma, forming an emulsion of gas and magma called volcanic ash. The cooling of the gas in the ash as it expands chills the magma fragments, often forming tiny glass shards recognisable as portions of the walls of former liquid bubbles. In more fluid magmas the bubble walls may have time to reform into spherical liquid droplets. The final state of the emulsions depends strongly on the ratio of liquid to gas. Gas-poor magmas end up cooling into rocks with small cavities, becoming vesicular lava. Gas-rich magmas cool to form rocks with cavities that nearly touch, with an average density less than that of water, forming pumice. Meanwhile, other material can be accelerated with the gas, becoming volcanic bombs. These can travel with so much energy that large ones can create craters when they hit the ground.[2]
Pyroclastic flows
editWhen an emulsion of volcanic gas and magma falls back to the ground, it can create a density current called a pyroclastic flow. The emulsion is somewhat fluidised by the gas, allowing it to spread. These can often climb over obstacles, and devastate human life.[2] Earthly pyroclastic flows can travel at up to 80 km (50 mi) per hour and reach temperatures of 200 to 700 °C (392 to 1,292 °F). The high temperatures can burn flammable materials in the flow's path, including wood, vegetation, and buildings. Alternately, when an eruption has contact with snow, crater lakes, or wet soil in large amounts, water mixing into the flow can create lahars,[4] which pose significant known risks worldwide.
Types
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Other mechanisms
editAn explosive eruption is usually triggered by exsolution of volatiles but there are other ways to create an explosive eruption.
Phreatic eruption
editA phreatic eruption can occur when hot water under pressure is depressurised. Depressurisation reduces the boiling point of the water, so when depressurised the water suddenly boils.[5] Or it may happen when groundwater is suddenly heated, flashing to steam suddenly.[6] When the water turns into steam, it expands at supersonic speeds, up to 1,700 times its original volume. This can be enough to shatter solid rock, and hurl rock fragments hundreds of metres.[7]
A phreatomagmatic eruption contains magmatic material, in contrast to a phreatic eruption which does not.[8]
Clathrate hydrates
editOne mechanism for explosive cryovolcanism is cryomagma making contact with clathrate hydrates. Clathrate hydrates, if exposed to warm temperatures, readily decompose. A 1982 article pointed out the possibility that the production of pressurised gas upon destabilisation of clathrate hydrates making contact with warm rising magma could produce an explosion that breaks through the surface, resulting in explosive cryovolcanism.[9]
Water vapor in a vacuum
editIf a fracture reaches the surface of an icy body and the column of rising water is exposed to the near-vacuum of the surface of most icy bodies, it will immediately start to boil, because its vapor pressure is much more than the ambient pressure. Not only that, but any volatiles in the water will exsolve. The combination of these processes will release droplets and vapor, which can rise up the fracture, creating a plume. This is thought to be partially responsible for Enceladus's ice plumes.[9]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Mason, Ben G.; Pyle, David M.; Oppenheimer, Clive (2004-12-01). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bulletin of Volcanology. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 129680497.
- ^ a b c d "Volcanoes" (PDF).
- ^ Skinner, Brian J. (2004). Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology. John Wiley & Sons. Inc. Hoboken, NJ. ISBN 978-0-471-15228-6.
- ^ "Pyroclastic flows move fast and destroy everything in their path".
- ^ "Dangerous water vapor: phreatic eruptions".
- ^ "VHP Photo Glossary: Phreatic eruption". Volcano Hazards Program. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 13 November 2010.
- ^ Cronin, Shane (December 9, 2019). "Steam-driven volcanic eruptions difficult to predict, still poorly understood".
- ^ "Phreatomagmatic Eruption as Explained to Kids". January 14, 2020.
- ^ a b Fagent1, Lopes2, Quick3, Gregg4, Sarah A.1, Rosaly M.C.2, Lynnae C.3, Tracy K.P.4. "Chapter 5 Cryovolcanism" (PDF).
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External links
edit- "Recent Developments in Explosive Volcanism". Commission on Explosive Volcanism (CEV). Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2010.