Duplex stainless steels[1][2][3][4][5] are a family of stainless steels. These are called duplex (or austenitic-ferritic) grades because their metallurgical structure consists of two phases, austenite (face-centered cubic lattice) and ferrite (body centered cubic lattice) in roughly equal proportions.
They provide better corrosion resistance, particularly chloride stress corrosion and chloride pitting corrosion, and higher strength than standard austenitic stainless steels such as A2/304 or A4/316. The main differences in composition, when compared with austenitic stainless steel is that duplex steels have a higher chromium content, 20–28%; higher molybdenum, up to 5%; lower nickel, up to 9% and 0.05–0.50% nitrogen. Both the low nickel content and the high strength (enabling thinner sections to be used) give significant cost benefits. Duplex steels also have higher strength. For example, a Type 304 stainless steel has a 0.2% proof strength in the region of 280 MPa (41 ksi), a 22%Cr duplex stainless steel a minimum 0.2% proof strength of some 450 MPa (65 ksi) and a superduplex grade a minimum of 550 MPa (80 ksi).[6]
Duplex steels are used extensively in the offshore oil and gas industry for pipework systems, manifolds, risers, etc. and in the petrochemical industry for pipelines and pressure vessels.
Grades of duplex stainless steels
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Duplex stainless steels are usually divided into three groups based on their pitting corrosion resistance, characterised by the pitting resistance equivalence number, PREN = %Cr + 3.3 %Mo + 16 %N.[7]
- Standard duplex (PREN range: 28–38)
- Typically Grade EN 1.4462 (also called 2205). It is typical of the mid-range of properties and is perhaps the most used today
- Super-duplex (PREN range: 38–45)
- Typically grade EN 1.4410 up to so-called hyper duplex grades (PREN: >45) developed later to meet specific demands of the oil and gas as well as those of the chemical industries. They offer a superior corrosion resistance and strength but are more difficult to process because the higher contents of Cr, Mo, N and even W promote the formation of intermetallic phases, which reduce drastically the impact resistance of the steel. Faulty processing will result in poor performance and users are advised to deal with reputable suppliers/processors.[8] Applications include deepwater offshore oil production.
- Lean duplex grades (PREN range: 22–27)
- Typically grade EN 1.4362, have been developed more recently for less demanding applications, particularly in the building and construction industry. Their corrosion resistance is closer to that of the standard austenitic grade EN 1.4401 (with a plus on resistance to stress corrosion cracking) and their mechanical properties are higher. This can be a great advantage when strength is important. This is the case in bridges, pressure vessels or tie bars.
Chemical compositions
editChemicals composition of grades from EN 10088-1 (2014) Standard are given in the table below:[9]
| ISO Steel designation | EN Number | UNS equiv[10] | C, max. | Si | Mn | P, max. | S, max. | N | Cr | Cu | Mo | Ni | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| X2CrNiN22-2 | 1.4062 | S32202 | 0.03 | ≤1.00 | ≤2.00 | 0.04 | 0.010 | 0.16 to 0.28 | 21.5 to 24.0 | - | ≤0.45 | 1.00 to 2.90 | - |
| X2CrCuNiN23-2-2 | 1.4669 | 0.045 | ≤1.00 | 1.00 to 3.00 | 0.04 | 0.030 | 0.12 to 0.20 | 21.5 to 24.0 | 1.60 to 3.00 | ≤0.50 | 1.00 to 3.00 | - | |
| X2CrNiMoSi18-5-3 | 1.4424 | S31500 | 0.03 | 1.40 to 2.00 | 1.20 to 2.00 | 0.035 | 0.015 | 0.05 to 0.10 | 18.0 to 19.0 | - | 2.5 to 3.0 | 4.5 to 5.2 | - |
| X2CrNiN23-4 | 1.4362 | S32304 | 0.03 | ≤1.00 | ≤2.00 | 0.035 | 0.015 | 0.05 to 0.20 | 22.0 to 24.5 | 0.10 to 0.60 | 0.10 to 0.60 | 3.5 to 5.5 | - |
| X2CrMnNiN21-5-1 | 1.4162 | S32101 | 0.04 | ≤1.00 | 4.0 to 6.0 | 0.040 | 0.015 | 0.20 to 0.25 | 21.0 to 22.0 | 0.10 to 0.80 | 0.10 to 0.80 | 1.35 to 1.90 | - |
| X2CrMnNiMoN21-5-3 | 1.4482 | 0.03 | ≤1.00 | 4.0 to 6.0 | 0.035 | 0.030 | 0.05 to 0.20 | 19.5 to 21.5 | ≤1.00 | 0.10 to 0.60 | 1.50 to 3.50 | - | |
| X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 | 1.4462 | S31803,
S32205 |
0.03 | ≤1.00 | ≤2.00 | 0.035 | 0.015 | 0.10 to 0.22 | 21.0 to 23.0 | - | 2.50 to 3.50 | 4.5 to 6.5 | - |
| X2CrNiMnMoCuN24-4-3-2 | 1.4662 | 0.03 | ≤0.70 | 2.5 to 4.0 | 0.035 | 0.005 | 0.20 to 0.30 | 23.0 to 25.0 | 0.10 to 0.80 | 1.00 to 2.00 | 3.0 to 4.5 | ||
| X2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3 | 1.4507 | S32520 | 0.03 | ≤0.70 | ≤2.00 | 0.035 | 0.015 | 0.20 to 0.30 | 24.0 to 26.0 | 1.00 to 2.50 | 3.0 to 4.0 | 6.0 to 8.0 | - |
| X3CrNiMoN27-5-2 | 1.4460 | S31200 | 0.05 | ≤1.00 | ≤2.00 | 0.035 | 0.015 | 0.05 to 0.20 | 25.0 to 28.0 | - | 1.30 to 2.00 | 4.5 to 6.5 | - |
| X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 | 1.4410 | S32750 | 0.03 | ≤1.00 | ≤2.00 | 0.035 | 0.015 | 0.24 to 0.35 | 24.0 to 26.0 | - | 3.0 to 4.5 | 6.0 to 8.0 | - |
| X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 | 1.4501 | S32760 | 0.03 | ≤1.00 | ≤1.00 | 0.035 | 0.015 | 0.20 to 0.30 | 24.0 to 26.0 | 0.50 to 1.00 | 3.0 to 4.0 | 6.0 to 8.0 | W 0.50 to 1.00 |
| X2CrNiMoN29-7-2 | 1.4477 | S32906 | 0.03 | ≤0.50 | 0.80 to 1.50 | 0.030 | 0.015 | 0.30 to 0.40 | 28.0 to 30.0 | ≤0.80 | 1.50 to 2.60 | 5.8 to 7.5 | - |
| X2CrNiMoCoN28-8-5-1 | 1.4658 | S32707 | 0.03 | ≤0.50 | ≤1.50 | 0.035 | 0.010 | 0.30 to 0.50 | 26.0 to 29.0 | ≤1.00 | 4.0 to 5.0 | 5.5 to 9.5 | Co 0.50 to 2.00 |
| X2CrNiCuN23-4 | 1.4655 | S32304 | 0.03 | ≤1.00 | ≤2.00 | 0.035 | 0.015 | 0.05 to 0.20 | 22.0 to 24.0 | 1.00 to 3.00 | 0.10 to 0.60 | 3.5 to 5.5 | - |
Mechanical properties
editMechanical properties from European Standard EN 10088-3 (2014)[9] (for product thickness below 160 mm):
| ISO desig. | EN num. | 0.2% proof stress, min | Ultimate tensile strength | Elongation, min (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| X2CrNiN23-4 | 1.4362 | 400 MPa (58 ksi) | 600 to 830 MPa (87 to 120 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 | 1.4462 | 450 MPa (65 ksi) | 650 to 880 MPa (94 to 128 ksi) | 25 |
| X3CrNiMoN27-5-2 | 1.4460 | 450 MPa (65 ksi) | 620 to 680 MPa (90 to 99 ksi) | 20 |
| X2CrNiN22-2 | 1.4062 | 380 MPa (55 ksi) | 650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi) | 30 |
| X2CrCuNiN23-2-2 | 1.4669 | 400 MPa (58 ksi) | 650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrNiMoSi18-5-3 | 1.4424 | 400 MPa (58 ksi) | 680 to 900 MPa (99 to 131 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrMnNiN21-5-1 | 1.4162 | 400 MPa (58 ksi) | 650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrMnNiMoN21-5-3 | 1.4482 | 400 MPa (58 ksi) | 650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrNiMnMoCuN24-4-3-2 | 1.4662 | 450 MPa (65 ksi) | 650 to 900 MPa (94 to 131 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrNiMoCuN25-6-3 | 1.4507 | 500 MPa (73 ksi) | 700 to 900 MPa (100 to 130 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 | 1.4410 | 530 MPa (77 ksi) | 730 to 930 MPa (106 to 135 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 | 1.4501 | 530 MPa (77 ksi) | 730 to 930 MPa (106 to 135 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrNiMoN29-7-2 | 1.4477 | 550 MPa (80 ksi) | 750 to 1,000 MPa (109 to 145 ksi) | 25 |
| X2CrNiMoCoN28-8-5-1* | 1.4658 | 650 MPa (94 ksi) | 800 to 1,000 MPa (120 to 150 ksi) | 25 |
*for thickness ≤ 5 mm (0.20 in)
The minimum yield stress values are about twice as high as those of austenitic stainless steels.
Duplex grades are therefore attractive when mechanical properties at room temperature are important because they allow thinner sections.
475 °C embrittlement
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EBSD map with austenite grains excluded (white). The scale bar is 500 μm. Colours denote the crystal orientation and are taken from the inverse pole figure at the lower right corner. Duplex stainless is widely used in the industry because it possesses excellent oxidation resistance but can have limited toughness due to its large ferritic grain size, and they have hardened, and embrittlement tendencies at temperatures ranging from 280 to 500 °C, especially at 475 °C, where spinodal decomposition of the supersaturated solid ferrite solution into Fe-rich nanophase ( ) and Cr-rich nanophase ( ), accompanied by G-phase precipitation, occurs,[13][14][15] which makes the ferrite phase a preferential initiation site for micro-cracks.[16]
Heat treatment
edit| UNS No. Grade | EN No. | Hot forming temperature range | Minimum soaking temperature |
|---|---|---|---|
| S32304 | 1.4362 | 1,150 to 950 °C (2,100 to 1,740 °F) | 980 °C (1,800 °F) |
| S32205 | 1.4462 | 1,230 to 950 °C (2,250 to 1,740 °F) | 1,040 °C (1,900 °F) |
| S32750 | 1.4410 | 1,235 to 1,025 °C (2,255 to 1,877 °F) | 1,050 °C (1,920 °F) |
| S32520 | 1.4507 | 1,230 to 1,000 °C (2,250 to 1,830 °F) | 1,080 °C (1,980 °F) |
| S32760 | 1.4501 | 1,230 to 1,000 °C (2,250 to 1,830 °F) | 1,100 °C (2,010 °F) |
Duplex stainless steel grades must be cooled as quickly as possible to room temperature after hot forming to avoid the precipitation of intermetallic phases (Sigma phase in particular) which drastically reduce the impact resistance at room temperature as well as the corrosion resistance.[17]
Alloying elements Cr, Mo, W, Si increase the stability and the formation of intermetallic phases. Therefore, super duplex grades have a higher hot working temperature range and require faster cooling rates than the lean duplex grades.
Applications of duplex stainless steels
editDuplex stainless steels are usually selected for their high mechanical properties and good to very high corrosion resistance (particularly to stress corrosion cracking).
- Architecture
- Stockholm's waterfront building [18]
- Louvre Abu Dhabi[19]
- La Sagrada Familia[20]
- Infrastructure:
- Helix Bridge, Singapore [21]
- Cala Galdana bridge [22]
- Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau bridge and undersea tunnel [23]
- sea walls, piers, etc.
- tunnels
- Oil and gas:
- a wide range of equipment: flowlines, manifolds, risers, pumps, valves, etc.[24]
- Pulp and paper:
- digesters, pressure vessels, liquor tanks, etc.[25]
- Chemical engineering:
- pressure vessels, heat exchangers, condensers, distillation columns, agitators, marine chemical tankers, etc.[26]
- Water:
- desalination plants, large tanks for water storage, waste water treatment [27]
- renewable energy: Biogas tanks
- Mobility: tramcars and bus frames, tank trucks, iron ore wagons [5]
- Engineering: pumps, valves, fittings, springs, etc.
Further reading
edit- TMR Stainless. Practical Guidelines for the Fabrication of Duplex Stainless Steels. 3rd ed. International Molybdenum Association (IMOA); 2014.
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Peckner, Donald; Bernstein, I.M. (1977). "chapter 8". Handbook of Stainless Steels. McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780070491472.
- ^ Lacombe, P.; Baroux, B.; Beranger, G. (1990). "chapter 18". Les Aciers Inoxydables. Les Editions de Physique. ISBN 2-86883-142-7.
- ^ International Molybdenum Association (IMOA) (2014). Practical Guidelines for the fabrication of Duplex Stainless Steels (PDF). ISBN 978-1-907470-09-7 – via www.imoa.info.
- ^ Charles, Jacques (2010). Proceedings of the Duplex Stainless Steel Conference, Beaune (2010). EDP Sciences, Paris. pp. 29–82. Archived from the original on 2022-05-06. Retrieved 2019-10-27.
- ^ a b International Stainless Steel Forum (2020). "Duplex Stainless Steels" (PDF).
- ^ Dr. James Fritz. "A Practical Guide to Using Duplex Stainless Steels". Nickel Institute.
- ^ Bristish Stainless Steel Association. "Calculation of Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN)". bssa.org.uk.
- ^ "Knowledge center — Sandvik Materials Technology". www.materials.sandvik. Retrieved 2019-03-25.
- ^ a b "The standard is available from BSI Shop".
- ^ "Stainless steel grades listed in the international standard ISO 15510:2010 Comparative designations of grades with similar composition from other important standards. (listed by type of steel structure and by increasing intermediate 3-digits code of the ISO name)" (PDF). International Stainless Steel Forum. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
- ^ Mohamed Koko, A. (2022). In situ full-field characterisation of strain concentrations (deformation twins, slip bands and cracks) (PhD thesis). University of Oxford.
- ^ Koko, Abdalrhaman; Elmukashfi, Elsiddig; Becker, Thorsten H.; Karamched, Phani S.; Wilkinson, Angus J.; Marrow, T. James (2022-10-15). "In situ characterisation of the strain fields of intragranular slip bands in ferrite by high-resolution electron backscatter diffraction". Acta Materialia. 239: 118284. Bibcode:2022AcMat.23918284K. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2022.118284. ISSN 1359-6454.
- ^ Örnek, Cem; Burke, M. G.; Hashimoto, T.; Engelberg, D. L. (April 2017). "748 K (475 °C) Embrittlement of Duplex Stainless Steel: Effect on Microstructure and Fracture Behavior". Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A. 48 (4): 1653–1665. Bibcode:2017MMTA...48.1653O. doi:10.1007/s11661-016-3944-2. ISSN 1073-5623. S2CID 136321604.
- ^ Weng, K. L; Chen, H. R; Yang, J. R (2004-08-15). "The low-temperature aging embrittlement in a 2205 duplex stainless steel". Materials Science and Engineering: A. 379 (1): 119–132. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2003.12.051. ISSN 0921-5093.
- ^ Beattie, H. J.; Versnyder, F. L. (July 1956). "A New Complex Phase in a High-Temperature Alloy". Nature. 178 (4526): 208–209. Bibcode:1956Natur.178..208B. doi:10.1038/178208b0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4217639.
- ^ Liu, Gang; Li, Shi-Lei; Zhang, Hai-Long; Wang, Xi-Tao; Wang, Yan-Li (August 2018). "Characterization of Impact Deformation Behavior of a Thermally Aged Duplex Stainless Steel by EBSD". Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters). 31 (8): 798–806. doi:10.1007/s40195-018-0708-6. ISSN 1006-7191. S2CID 139395583.
- ^ International Molybdenum Association (IMOA). "Hot forming and Heat Treatment of Duplex Stainless Steels" (PDF). www.imoa.info.
- ^ Euro-Inox. "Innovative Facades in Stainless Steel". Euro-Inox Publication, Building series. Vol. 19. p. 34. ISBN 978-2-87997-372-2.
- ^ International Molybdenum Association (2019). "Louvre Abu Dhabi: A rain of light". Moly Review. No. 1.
- ^ "Basilica de la Sagrada familia". Acero Inoxidable. No. 82. Cedinox. June 2018.
- ^ Steel Construction Institute (2012). "Helix Pedestrian Bridge".
- ^ "Cala Galdana Bridge". Steel Construction Institute. 2010.
- ^ "Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge: the world's longest sea bridge". www.roadtraffic-technology.com. Retrieved 2021-04-29.
- ^ Zuili, D (2010). "The use of stainless steels in oil & gas industry". Proceedings of the Duplex Stainless Steel Conference: 575. Archived from the original on 2022-05-06. Retrieved 2019-10-27.
- ^ Chater, James (2007). "The pulp and paper industry turns to duplex" (PDF). Stainless steel world.
- ^ Notten, G (1997). Application of Duplex Stainless Steel in the chemical process industry (PDF). 5th Duplex stainless steel world conference. Stainless Steel World.
- ^ Directorate-General for Research and Innovation (2013). Duplex stainless steels in storage tanks. EU Publication. doi:10.2777/49448. ISBN 978-92-79-34576-0.