Some Buddhist terms and concepts lack direct translations into English that cover the breadth of the original term. Below are given a number of important Buddhist terms, short definitions, and the languages in which they appear. In this list, an attempt has been made to organize terms by their original form and give translations and synonyms in other languages along with the definition.
Languages and traditions dealt with here:
- English (Eng.)
- Pāli: Theravada Buddhism
- Sanskrit (or Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit): primarily Mahayana Buddhism
- Bengali (Bgd): Buddhism in Bangladesh
- Sinhala (Sri): Buddhism in Sri Lanka
- Burmese (Bur): Buddhism in Myanmar
- Karen (Kar): Theravada Buddhism
- Khmer: Buddhism in Cambodia
- Mon (Mon): Theravada Buddhism
- Mongolian (Mn): Buddhism in Mongolia
- Shan (Shan): Theravada Buddhism
- Tibetan (Tib): Tibetan Buddhism
- Dzongkha ༼རྫོང་ཁ༽ (Dzo): Buddhism in Bhutan
- Thai: Buddhism in Thailand
- Lao: Buddhism in Laos
- CJKV languages
- Chinese (Cn): Chinese Buddhism
- Cantonese (Hk): Buddhism in Hong Kong
- Japanese (Jp): Buddhism in Japan
- Korean (Ko): Korean Buddhism
- Taiwanese Hokkien (Tw): Buddhism in Taiwan
- Vietnamese (Vi): Buddhism in Vietnam (Mahayana and Theravada)
- Javanese (Jv): Buddhism in Indonesia
A
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| abhidhamma A category of scriptures that attempts to use Buddhist teachings to create a systematic, abstract description of all worldly phenomena |
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| Avataṃsakasūtra "Garland Scripture" |
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| Abhidhamma Pitaka The third basket of the Tripitaka canon, the reorganization of all doctrines in a systematic way |
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| Abhiniṣkramaṇasūtra |
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| acariya, lit. "teacher", One of the two teachers of a novice monk - the other one is called upādhyāya |
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| Adbhutadharmaparyāyasūtra |
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| Adhigamadharma Realized Dharma |
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| adhitthana Determination, to pray, to wish |
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| Āgama The non-Mahayana divisions of the Sutra Pitaka |
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| Āgamadharma scriptural Dharma |
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| ahimsa The devotion to non-violence and respect for all forms of life. Practicers of ahimsa are often vegetarians or vegans |
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| Akshobhya |
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Ködelüsi ügei, Ülü hödelügci |
| akuśalakarmapatha unwholesome courses of action |
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| alayavijnana, see store consciousness |
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| Amitabha Lit. "The Buddha of Infinite Light". The main buddha of the Pure Land school, but is popular in other Mahayana sects as well. The image is of light as the form of wisdom, which has no form. Also interpreted as the Tathagata of Unhindered Light that Penetrates the Ten Quarters by Tan Luan, Shinran and others |
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| Amitābhasūtra |
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| Amoghasiddhi |
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| anagārika A white-clothed student in the Theravada tradition who, for a few months, awaits being considered for sāmaṇera ordination. An anagārika takes the eight precepts, and in some cases, may choose to remain in this position for years to directly support the sangha. |
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| anapanasati Mindfulness of the breath meditation |
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| anatta The principle denial of the soul in any phenomena. See also negative theology. |
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| anicca Impermanence |
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| anitya Impermanence, synonym to anicca | ||
| anuttara Unsurpassing |
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| anuttara samyak sambodhi, unsurpassable, complete, perfect enlightenment; unsurpassable, right, and full enlightenment |
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| arhat, lit. "the Worthy One", A living person who has reached Enlightenment |
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| ārūpyarāga |
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| asura "nongods," |
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| atman literally "self", sometimes "soul" or "ego". In Buddhism, the predominant teaching is the negating doctrine of anatman, that there is no permanent, persisting atman, and that belief in atman is the prime consequence of ignorance, the foundation of samsara |
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| Avalokitesvara, lit. "One Who Hears the Suffering Cries of the World", The bodhisattva of compassion (see also Guan Yin) |
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| avidya "ignorance" or "delusion" |
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B
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| bardo, lit. "intermediate state" or "in-between state", According to Tibetan tradition, the state of existence intermediate between two lives |
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| bhavacakra/bhavacakka A circular symbolic representation of samsara, also known as Wheel of becoming |
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| bhante The polite particle used to refer to Buddhist monks in the Theravada tradition. Bhante literally means "Venerable Sir." |
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| bhava Becoming, being, existing; the 10th link of Pratitya-samutpada |
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| bhikkhu/bhikshu, lit. "beggar", A Buddhist monk |
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| bhikkhuni/bhikshuni A Buddhist nun |
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| bija, lit. "seed", A metaphor for the origin or cause of things, used in the teachings of the Yogacara school |
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| bodhi Awakening or Enlightenment |
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| Bodhisattvapiṭaka "The Bodhisattva Basket" |
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| Bodhi tree The Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa) tree under which Gautama reached Enlightenment |
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| Bodhicaryāvatāra "Introduction to the Practice of Enlightenment," written by Śāntideva (685-763) |
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| bodhicitta The motivation of a bodhisattva |
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| bodhisattva One with the intention to become a Buddha in order to liberate all other sentient beings from suffering |
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| Boghda Holy, living Buddha, living Boddhisattva. The title of Jebtsundamba Khutuktu; also title used with the names of highest Buddhist masters, e.g. boghda Tsongkhapa, Panchen boghda |
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| Buddha A Buddha; also, the Buddha Siddhārtha Gautama. |
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| buddha nature The uncreated and deathless Buddhic element or principle concealed within all sentient beings to achieve Awakening; the innate (latent) Buddha essence (esp. in the Tathagatagarbha sutras, Tendai/Tiantai, Nichiren thought) |
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| Buddhism The religion and philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Gautama Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in ancient India during the 6th or 5th century BCE |
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C
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| cetana Volition |
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| Cetiya A reliquary holding holy objects of veneration |
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| chanda intention, interest, desire to act, aspiration |
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D
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| dakini A supernatural female with volatile temperament who serves as a muse for spiritual practice. Dakinis are often depicted naked to represent the truth |
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| Dalai Lama, lit. "the lama with wisdom like an ocean", secular and spiritual leader of Tibet as nominated by the Mongols |
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| dana Generosity or giving; in Buddhism, it also refers to the practice of cultivating generosity |
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| deva many different types of non-human beings who share the characteristics of being more powerful, longer-lived, and, in general, living more contentedly than the average human being |
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| dependent origination, see Pratityasamutpada |
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| dhamma/dharma Often refers to the doctrines and teachings of the faith, but it may have broader uses. Also, it is an important technical term meaning something like "phenomenological constituent." This leads to the potential for confusion, puns, and double entendres, as the latter meaning often has negative connotations |
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| dhamma name/dharma name A Dharma name or Dhamma name is a new name traditionally bestowed by a Buddhist monastic, given to newly ordained monks, nuns, and laity during both lay and monastic Buddhist initiation ritual in Mahayana Buddhism and monastic ordination in Theravada Buddhism (where it may also be called a Sangha name). Dhamma names are usually considered aspirational, not descriptive. |
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| dhammavinaya The dharma and vinaya (roughly "doctrine and discipline") considered together. This term essentially means the whole teachings of Buddhism as taught to monks |
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| dhammacakka/dharmacakra A symbolic representation of the dharma, also known as the Wheel of Dharma |
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| Dhammapada a versified Buddhist scripture traditionally ascribed to the Buddha |
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| dhammapala/dharmapala A fearsome deity, known as protector of the Dharma |
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| Dhyana, see jhana |
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| Dīpankara Buddha |
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| doan In Zen, a term for person sounding the bell that marks the beginning and end of Zazen |
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| dokusan A private meeting between a Zen student and the master. It is an important element in Rinzai Zen training, as it provides an opportunity for the student to demonstrate understanding |
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| dudie official certificate for monks and nuns issued by government |
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| dukkha Suffering, dissatisfaction, unsatisfactoriness, stress |
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| dveṣa aversion |
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| dzogchen The natural, intrinsic state of every sentient being |
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F
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Five Five-Hundred-Year Periods Five sub-divisions of the three periods following the Buddha's passing (三時繫念 Cn: sānshí; Jp: sanji; Vi: tam thời), significant for many Mahayana adherents:
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Four Noble Truths
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| fukudo In Zen, term for person who strikes the han |
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G
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| gasshō A position used for greeting, with the palms together and fingers pointing upwards in prayer position; used in various Buddhist traditions, but also used in numerous cultures throughout Asia. It expresses greeting, request, thankfulness, reverence and prayer. Also considered a mudra or inkei of Japanese Shingon. See also: Añjali Mudrā, Namaste, Sampeah and Wai. Shaolin monks use half a gassho using only one arm to greet.
In Japan, it is used not only during rituals concerning Buddhism but also as a gesture to appease the opposite party when making apologies or asking for permission or favors. In addition, there are cases where a person greets them during a greeting before and after a meal, which is a custom derived from Buddhism. In Shinto, they clap hands together as hands, but then lower their hands, bow and worship (in Shinto worship, they do not share hands). |
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| Gautama Buddha |
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| geshe A Tibetan Buddhist academic degree in the Gelug tradition, awarded at the conclusion of lengthy studies often lasting nine years or more |
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| gongan, lit. "public case", A meditative method developed in the Chán/Seon/Zen traditions, generally consisting of a problem that defies solution by means of rational thought; see koan |
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| Guan Yin The bodhisattva of compassion in East Asian Buddhism, with full name being Guan Shi Yin. Guan Yin is considered to be the female form of Avalokiteshvara but has been given many more distinctive characteristics. |
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H
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| han In Zen monasteries, wooden board that is struck announcing sunrise, sunset and the end of the day |
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| Hinayana, lit. "small vehicle", A coinage by the Mahayana for the Buddhist doctrines concerned with the achievement of Nirvana as a Śrāvakabuddha or a Pratyekabuddha, as opposed to a Samyaksambuddha. While sometime thought as derogatory, it means in fact that the Hinayana doctrine is made to save but 1 individual, the one who follows its teachings, just like a 1 place vehicle, while the Mahayana allow the monk to take other people along with him, like a bus or a great plane. |
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I
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| Ino, Jp. lit. "bringer of joy to the assembly." Originally from Sanskrit karmadana, lit. bestower of conduct [karma]. In Zen, the supervisor of the meditation hall [sodo]. One of the six senior temple administrators. |
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J
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| Jetavana |
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| jhana Meditative contemplation; more often associated with śamatha practices than vipaśyana. See also: shamata, samadhi, samapatti |
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| jisha In Zen, a senior priest's attendant |
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| jukai Zen public ordination ceremony wherein a lay student receives certain Buddhist precepts. |
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K
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| Kakusandha Buddha |
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| karma, lit. "action", or more specifically, an action that is driven by intention (cetanā) which leads to future consequences (vipāka). In Buddhist thought, this is a deed done deliberately through body, speech or mind, which leads to residual effects in the present or future. It is a central belief within the Buddhist tradition and is synonymous with causality (cause and effect). |
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| Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa |
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| Kassapa Buddha |
Sanskrit: Kasyapa |
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| kensho In Zen, enlightenment; has the same meaning as satōri, but is customary used for an initial awakening experience |
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| khyenpo, also khenpo, An academic degree similar to a doctorate in theology, philosophy, and psychology |
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| khanti patience |
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| kinhin Zen walking meditation |
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| koan A story, question, problem or statement generally inaccessible to rational understanding, yet may be accessible to Intuition |
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| kṣaṇa instant |
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| kṣaṇasaṃpad opportune birth, born at a time when either a Buddha is living and teaching on earth or when a Buddha's teaching is available |
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| ksanti The practice of exercising patience toward behaviour or situations that might not necessarily deserve it—it is seen as a conscious choice to actively give patience as a gift, rather than being in a state of oppression in which one feels obligated to act in such a way. |
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| Kṣitigarbha "Earth Store," one of the eight great Bodhisattvas. |
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| Kṣitigarbhasūtra "The Scripture on Kṣitigarbha" |
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| kleśa afflictions |
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| Koṇāgamana Buddha |
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| Kumbhāṇḍa |
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| kuśalakarmapatha wholesome courses of action |
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| kuśalamūla roots of virtue, wholesome faculties; |
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| kyosaku In Zen, a flattened stick used to strike the shoulders during zazen, to help overcome fatigue or reach satori |
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L
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| lakṣaṇa characteristics, marks |
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| Lam rim chen mo "Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path" written by Guru Tsongkhapa in 1402 |
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| Lalitavistara |
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| lama A Tibetan teacher or master; equivalent to Sanskrit "guru" |
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| lineage The official record of the historical descent of dharma teachings from one teacher to another; by extension, may refer to a tradition |
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M
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| Mahābodhi Temple - "Temple of the Great Awakening", the great stūpa at Bodhgayā where Shakyamuni Buddha attain enlightenment. |
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| Madhyamaka Buddhist philosophical school, founded by Nagarjuna. Members of this school are called Madhyamikas |
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| mahabhuta four great elements in traditional Buddhist thought |
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| mahamudra A method of direct introduction the understanding of sunyata, of samsara and that the two are inseparable |
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| Mahāprajñāpāramitāsūtra "Sutra on the Great Perfection of Wisdom" |
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| mahasiddha litt. great spiritual accomplishment. A yogi in Tantric Buddhism, often associated with the highest levels of enlightenment |
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| Mahāvadānasūtra | Sanskrit: Mahāvadānasūtra |
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| Mahayana, lit. "great vehicle", A major branch of Buddhism practiced in China, Tibet, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan. Main goal is to achieve buddhahood or samyaksambuddha |
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| Maitreya The Buddha of the future epoch |
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| makyo In Zen, unpleasant or distracting thoughts or illusions that occur during zazen |
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| Māna conceit, arrogance, misconception |
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| manas-vijñāna seventh of the eight counsciousnesses |
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| mandala a spiritual and ritual symbol representing the Universe |
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| maṅgala auspiciousness |
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| mantra Chant used primarily to aid concentration, to reach enlightenment. The best-known Buddhist mantra is possibly Om mani padme hum |
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| Mappo The "degenerate" Latter Day of the Law. A time period supposed to begin 2,000 years after Sakyamuni Buddha's passing and last for "10,000 years"; follows the two 1,000-year periods of Former Day of the Law (正法 Cn: zhèngfǎ; Jp: shōbō) and of Middle Day of the Law (像法 Cn: xiàngfǎ; Jp: zōhō). During this degenerate age, chaos will prevail and the people will be unable to attain enlightenment through the word of Sakyamuni Buddha. See the Three periods |
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| merit |
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| mettā loving kindness |
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| Middle Way The practice of avoidance of extreme views and lifestyle choices |
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| (right) mindfulness The practice whereby a person is intentionally aware of his or her thoughts and actions in the present moment, non-judgmentally. The 7th step of the Noble Eightfold Path |
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| moksha Liberation |
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| mokugyo A wooden drum carved from one piece, usually in the form of a fish |
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| mondo In Zen, a short dialogue between teacher and student |
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| mudra lit. "seal", A gesture made with hands and fingers in meditation |
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N
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| namo An exclamation showing reverence; devotion. Often placed in front of the name of an object of veneration, e.g., a Buddha's name or a sutra (Nam(u) Myōhō Renge Kyō), to express devotion to it. Defined in Sino-Japanese as 帰命 kimyō: to base one's life upon, to devote (or submit) one's life to
Derivatives:
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Derivatives:
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Derivatives:
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| Naraka realm of hell |
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| nekkhamma renunciation |
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| Nirvana/Nibbana Extinction or extinguishing; ultimate enlightenment in the Buddhist tradition |
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| Nikaya, lit. "volume", The Buddhist texts in Pāli |
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Noble Eightfold Path
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O
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| oryoki A set of bowls used in a Zen eating ceremony |
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| osho A term used to address a monk of the Zen Buddhist tradition. Originally reserved for high-ranking monks, it has since been appropriated for everyday use when addressing any male member of the Zen clergy |
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| pabbajja, (a layperson) leaving home to join a community of monks and nuns (lit. "to go forth") |
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panca skandha The five constituent elements into which an individual is analyzed. They are:
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| Panchen Lama The second highest ranking lama in the Gelugpa sect of Tibetan Buddhism. after the Dalai Lama |
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| paññā, see prajna |
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| paramartha Absolute, as opposed to merely conventional, truth or reality; see also samvrti |
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| paramita, lit. "reaching the other shore," usually rendered in English as "perfection." The Mahayana practices for obtaining enlightenment; giving, ethics, patience, effort, concentration and wisdom |
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| parinibbana/parinirvana The final nibbana/nirvana |
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| Perfection of Wisdom |
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| Platform Sūtra of the Sixth Patriarch Sermon of the sixth patriarch of Zen Buddhism |
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| Pointing-out instruction The direct introduction to the nature of mind in the lineages of Essence Mahamudra and Dzogchen. A root guru is the master who gives the 'pointing-out instruction' so that the disciple recognizes the nature of mind |
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| prajna/paññā "wisdom", "insight" |
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| pratisaraṇa "reliance" |
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| pratitya-samutpada "Dependent origination," the view that no phenomenon exists (or comes about) without depending on other phenomena or conditions contingent with it. In English also called "conditioned genesis," "dependent co-arising," "interdependent arising," etc.
A famous application of dependent origination is the Twelve Nidana, or 12 inter-dependences (Sanskrit: dvādaśāṅgapratītyasamutpāda; 十二因緣, 十二因縁 Cn: shíàr yīnyuán; Jp: jūni innen; Vi: thập nhị nhân duyên), which are:
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| Pratyekabuddha/Paccekabuddha, lit. "a buddha by his own", A buddha who reaches enlightenment on his own |
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| Pure Land Buddhism A large branch of Mahayana, dominantly in East Asia. The goal of Pure Land Buddhism is to be reborn in the Western sukhavati of Amitabha, either as a real place or within the mind, through the other-power of repeating the Buddha's name, nianfo or nembutsu. |
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| Puruṣa Man (ep. representative of the male gender); human being |
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R
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| rebirth The process of continuity of life after death |
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| Ratnasambhava |
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| refuge Usually in the form of "take refuge in the Three Jewels" |
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| Rigpa, the knowledge that ensues from recognizing one's nature |
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| Rinpoche, lit. "precious one", An honorific title for a respected Tibetan lama, such as a tulku |
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| Rinzai Zen sect emphasizing koan study; named for master Linji Yixuan |
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| Rohatsu A day traditionally honored as the day of the Buddha's enlightenment. While deep in meditation under a bodhi tree, he attained enlightenment upon seeing the morning star just at dawn; celebrated on the 8th day either of December or of the 12th month of the lunar calendar |
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| roshi, lit. "Master", An honorific given to Zen teachers in the Rinzai and Obaku sects. |
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S
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| sacca truthfulness |
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| Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra Lotus Sutra | Sanskrit: Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra |
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| ṣaḍgati "six destinies" | Sanskrit: ṣaḍgati |
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| samanera/shramanera A male novice monk, who, after a year or until the ripe age of 20, will be considered for the higher Bhikkhu ordination |
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| samatha Mental stabilization; tranquility meditation. Distinguished from vipassanā meditation |
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| samsara The cycle of birth and rebirth; the world as commonly experienced |
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| samu Work, conceived as a part of Zen training.[2] |
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| samvrti Conventional, as opposed to absolute, truth or reality; see also paramartha |
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| sangha The community of Buddhist monks and nuns. Teachers and practitioners. |
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| Sanlun Buddhist philosophical school based on the Madhyamaka school |
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| sanzen A formal interview with a teacher in many traditions of Zen. Similar to dokusan |
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| satori Awakening; understanding. A Japanese term for enlightenment |
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| sayadaw Burmese meditation master |
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| seichu In the Zen Buddhist calendar, a period of intensive, formal monastic training. It is typically characterized by week-long Daisesshins and periodic sanzen |
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| sesshin A Zen retreat where practitioners meditate, eat and work together for several days |
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| shikantaza Soto Zen. "Only concentrated on sitting" is the main practice of the Soto school of Japanese Zen Buddhism |
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| shunyata Emptiness; see also Nagarjuna |
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| Sikhī Buddha Buddha of Knowledge |
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| sila "morals", "morality", "ethics": precepts |
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| Sōtō Sect of Zen emphasizing shikantaza as the primary mode of practice; see also Dōgen |
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| store consciousness The base consciousness (alayavijnana) taught in Yogacara Buddhism |
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| Śrāvastī |
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| sukha happiness; ease; pleasure; bliss |
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| sutra Scripture; originally referred to short aphoristic sayings and collections thereof |
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| Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra |
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| Sutra Pitaka The second basket of the Tripiṭaka canon, the collection of all Buddha's teachings |
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T
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| tangaryō A period of waiting for admission into a Zen monastery at the gate, lasting anywhere from one day to several weeks—depending on the quality of one's sitting. Refers to the room traveling monks stay in when visiting, or await admittance into the sōdō. |
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| tanha Craving or desire |
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| Tanto In Zen, one of the main temple leaders, lit."head of the tan." In a Zen temple, the Tanto is one of two officers (with the Godo) in charge monks' training.[2] |
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| tantra Esoteric religious practices, including yoga, mantra, etc. See also Vajrayana. |
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| Tathagata one of the Buddha's ten epithets |
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| tathagatagarbha Buddha-nature or the seed of enlightenment |
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| teisho A presentation by a Zen master during a sesshin. Rather than an explanation or exposition in the traditional sense, it is intended as a demonstration of Zen realisation |
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| tenzo In Zen, the head cook for a sesshin. In Zen temples, the officer in charge of the kitchen |
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| Tevijja Sutta Discourse of the Three-fold Knowledge |
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| Theravada, lit. "words of the elders", Most popular form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. |
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| thera or their, lit. "elder", Honorific applied to senior monks and nuns in the Theravada tradition. |
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| Three Jewels Three things that Buddhists take refuge in: the Buddha, his teachings (Dharma) and the community of realized practitioners (Sangha), and in return look toward for guidance (see also Refuge (Buddhism)) |
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Three periods
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Three Poisons or Three Fires
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| Tiantai/Tendai A Mahayana school of China that teaches the supremacy of the Lotus Sutra |
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trailõkya The 3 "regions" of the world:
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trikaya The 3 "bodies" of Buddha:
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| Triṃśikā |
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Tripitaka The "Three Baskets"; canon containing the sacred texts for Buddhism (Pāli)
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| Triratna/Tiratana, see Three Jewels above |
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| triviṣa three poisons |
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| trsna, see tanha above | ||
| tulku A re-incarnated Tibetan teacher |
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U
edit| Definition | Etymology | In other languages |
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| Udānavarga "Groups of Utterances" |
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| upadana Clinging; the 9th link of Pratitya-Samutpada; the Ninth Twelve Nidanas |
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| Upajjhaya spiritual teacher |
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| upasaka A lay follower of Buddhism |
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| upasika A female lay follower |
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| upaya Expedient though not necessarily ultimately true. Originally used as a polemical device against other schools - calling them "merely" expedient, lacking in ultimate truth, later used against one's own school to prevent students form forming attachments to doctrines
In Mahayana, exemplified by the Lotus Sutra, upaya are the useful means that Buddhas (and Buddhist teachers) use to free beings into enlightenment |
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| upekkha equanimity |
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| urna A concave circular dot on the forehead between the eyebrows |
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V
edit| Definition | Etymology | In other languages |
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| Vajrayana, The third major branch, alongside Hinayana and Mahayana, according to Tibetan Buddhism's view of itself |
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| Vairocana |
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| Vāsanā habitual tendencies or dispositions |
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| Vinaya Pitaka, The first basket of the Tripitaka canon, which deals with the rules of monastic life |
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| vipassana Usually translated as "Insight" meditation, most associated with the Theravāda tradition, but also present in some other traditions such as Tiantai. Often combined with śamatha meditation |
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| viriya energy, enthusiastic perseverance |
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Y
edit| Definition | Etymology | In other languages |
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| yāna divisions or schools of Buddhism according to their type of practice (lit. "vehicle") |
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Z
edit| Definition | Etymology | In other languages |
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| zazen Sitting meditation as practiced in the Zen School of Buddhism |
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| Zen School A branch of Mahayana originating in China that originally emphasizes non-dualism and intuition. Modern monastic forms have a strong emphasis on zazen (Korean) or on zazen combined with militaristic top-down hazing (Japanese) |
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| zendo In Zen, a hall where zazen is practiced |
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See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Leighton / Okumura (1996). Dogen's Pure Standards for the Zen Community. Albany, NY: SUNY. p. 214. ISBN 0-7914-2710-2.
- ^ Leighton/ Okumura (1996). Dogen's Pure Standards for the Zen Community. Albany: SUNY. p. 231. ISBN 0-7914-2710-2.
External links
edit- Pali Text Society Dictionary (Be sure to check the "Unicode font" option, and to have one; also, if looking for a word, choose "words that match")
- Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
- Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (Login with userid "guest")
- Kadampa Glossary of Buddhist Terms
- Fo Guang Shan Glossary of Buddhist Terms (with Chinese translation)