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Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples

(Redirected from Denial of atrocities against indigenous peoples)

Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples consists of a claim that has denied any of the multiple genocides and atrocity crimes, which have been committed against Indigenous peoples. The denialism claim contradicts the academic consensus, which acknowledges that genocide was committed.[1][2] The claim is a form of denialism, genocide denial, historical negationism and historical revisionism. The atrocity crimes include genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and ethnic cleansing.[3]

Spanish abuse at Encomienda depicted in Codex Kingsborough, 16th century

During European colonization, many empires have colonized territories inhabited by what would be known today as Indigenous peoples. Many new colonies have surviving Indigenous peoples within their new political borders,[8] and in this process, atrocities have been committed against Indigenous nations.[12] The atrocities against Indigenous peoples have related to forced displacement, exile, introduction of new diseases, forced containment in reservations, forced assimilation, forced labour, criminalization, dispossession, land theft, compulsory sterilization, forcibly transferring children of the group to another group, separating children from their families, enslavement, captivity, massacres, forced religious conversion, cultural genocide, and reduction of means of subsistence and subsequent starvation and disease.[22]

Non-Indigenous scholars are now increasingly examining the impact of settler colonialism and internal colonialism from the perspective of Indigenous peoples.[27]

Background

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Defining genocide

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An 1888 drawing of a massacre by Queensland's police at Skull Hole, Mistake Creek, near Winton, Australia.

In 1948, the Genocide Convention defined genocide as any of five "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group". These five acts include killing members of the group, causing them serious bodily or mental harm, imposing living conditions intended to destroy the group, preventing births, and forcibly transferring children out of the group.[28][29] Additional scholarly definitions have been used to examine the diverse history of genocide,[30] including those that include cultural and ethnic genocide as per Raphael Lemkin.[31]

Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky have argued that definitions of key terms, as well as the attention a society provides to a specific issue, such as genocide, is the product of mass media, as they mention in Manufacturing Consent: "A propaganda system will consistently portray people abused in enemy states as worthy victims, whereas those treated with equal or greater severity by its own government or clients will be unworthy".[32] Thus, Chomsky views the term genocide as one that is used by those in positions of political power and media prominence against their rivals, but people in positions of power will avoid using the term to describe their own actions, past and present.[33]

Bradley Campbell has proposed a theory of genocide as a function of minority status, social segregation, low population size, and lack of visibility. Further factors include marginalization, the lack of political representation, and lower economic or social status.[34]

In the latter part of the 20th century, the genocide of Indigenous peoples attracted more attention from the international community, including scholars and human rights organizations.[35]

Rationalization

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American academic and activist Gregory Stanton has described ten stages of genocide, in which the ninth stage is extermination and the tenth is denial. During this final stage, Stanton argues that individuals and government may "deny that these crimes meet the definition of genocide", "question whether intent to destroy a group can be proven", and "often blame what happened on the victims".[36] The concept of denial as the final stage of genocide has been discussed in more detail in the 2021 textbook Denial: The Final Stage of Genocide?[37] Stanton also indicates that stages often co-occur; the first eight stages include classification, symbolization, discrimination, dehumanization, organization, polarization, preparation, and persecution.[36] Early denial of genocide often occurred through these stages. For instance, American historian David Stannard explained that European colonizers "purposefully and systematically dehumaniz[ed] the people they were exterminating".[38]

Further, South African sociologist Leo Kuper has described denial as a routine defense, referring to it as a consequence of the Genocide Convention. He argues that denial has become more prevalent because genocide is considered "an international crime with potentially significant sanctions by way of punishment, claims for reparation, and restitution of territorial rights".[39]

Denial examples

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According to Robert K. Hitchcock, editor of Modern Genocide, "the destruction of Indigenous peoples and their cultures has been a policy of many of the world's governments, although most government spokespersons argue that the disappearance or disruption of Indigenous societies was not purposeful but rather occurred inadvertently."[40] Despite this, in 2013, Colin Leach et al. found that perpetrator groups denied their group's responsibility, showed low levels of collective guilt, and had low support for reparation policies.[41]

North America

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According to a survey conducted between 2016 and 2018, "36% of Americans almost certainly believe that the United States is guilty of committing genocide against Native Americans."[42] Indigenous author Michelle A. Stanley writes that "Indigenous genocide is largely denied, erased, relegated to the distant past, or presented as inevitable". She writes that Indigenous genocide is depicted broadly, without touching on the pattern of a series of separate genocides against multiple distinct tribal nations.[42] Seneca scholar Melissa Michal Slocum said that Native American genocide has been denied by the United States.[43]

 
Sand Creek Massacre, 1864

According to North American Genocides, edited by Clarke et al., many American scholars deny Indigenous genocide in the Americas, despite agreement from international scholars that it occurred.[44] American historian Ned Blackhawk said that nationalist historiographies have been forms of denial that erase the history of destruction of European colonial expansion. Blackhawk said that near consensus has emerged that genocide against some Indigenous peoples took place in North America following colonization.[45]

Some historians do not consider that genocide of Indigenous peoples took place in North America, including James Axtell, Robert Utley, William Rubinstein, Guenter Lewy and Gary Anderson, although some call the atrocities another name such as ethnic cleansing.[46][47] Other scholars, including Elazar Barkan and Walter L. Hixson agree with the sentiment that those in the Americas deny the genocide of the regions' Indigenous populations.[48][49]

On the Columbus Quincentenary, American historian David Stannard highlighted the numerous celebrations and festivities surrounding Columbus alongside "American and European denials of culpability for the most thoroughgoing genocide in the history of the world have assumed a new guise."[50] A similar issue arose when Lynne Cheney, then chair of the National Endowment for the Humanities, rejected a television project celebrating the anniversary, highlighted the proposal's use of the word "genocide". Cheney stated, "We might be interested in funding a film that debated that issue, but we are not about to fund a film that asserts it. Columbus was guilty of many sins, but he was not Hitler."[51]

This particular issue, the comparison to The Holocaust, has been raised by others, as well, with American historian David Stannard pointing to The Holocaust's prominent position in the public eye compared to the global ignorance of atrocities in the Americas.[52]

 
Indigenous prisoners of Red River War, 1875.

Howard Zinn,[53] Susan Cameron,[54] and Kirsten Dyck[55] have claimed that in American history textbooks, America's history of abuse against Indigenous peoples is mostly ignored or presented from the state's point of view.

In The Other Slavery, American historian Andrés Reséndez compares the thousands of books written about the slavery of Africans to the couple dozen books about Indigenous slavery and argues that the latter has "almost completely erased from our historical memory". He argues that African slavery is more widely accepted because it was legalized and therefore recorded, whereas Indigenous slavery was largely illegal; further, because African slaves needed to be transported, settlers kept record of ship manifests.[56]

Canadian political scientist Adam Jones has said that the historical revisionism has been so thorough that in some cases, the Americas have been depicted as unpopulated before European colonization.[57]

Other claims against the genocide of Indigenous people of the Americas deal with the natural superiority of the European colonizers. For instance, Stannard has argued that British journalist Christopher Hitchens's 1992 essay, "Minority Report", supported social Darwinism.[58]

California

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J. Ross Browne, "Protecting the Settlers". 1861. This image accompanied an article by Browne in which he described the killing of Yuki people at Round Valley, California.

Robert K. Hitchcock says that during the California genocide, "California state legislators, administrators, Indian agents, and townspeople denied that a genocide was happening."[46]

Continuing into the 21st century, Benjamin Madley has stated that the California genocide has "too often concealed, denied, or suppressed".[47] This can be evidenced via social science and history textbooks approved by the California Department of Education that ignore the history of this genocide.[59][60][61]

In 2015, English writer and political activist George Monbiot argued that when the Catholic Church canonized 18th-century Christian missionary Junípero Serra, who "founded the system of labour camps that expedited California's cultural genocide", they were, in effect, denying the genocide.[62][63]

Jeffrey Ostler points out that Indigenous genocide has been denied in California, but Ostler places the process seen during the California gold rush as a genocide given its structural nature.[64]

Canada

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Further information: Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples

Despite decades of recognition and acknowledgments denialism claims is a factor within Canadian society.[65][66]

A minority of Canada scholars disagre with use of the term genocide for Canada because of legal challenges associated with proving genocidal intent,[67][68][69][70] while most believe using the term genocide is essential to recognize the seriousness of the ethnocide suffered, and avoiding it is a form genocide denialism.[71][72][73]

The Canadian Museum for Human Rights (CMHR) received criticism upon its opening in 2014 because it did not use the term genocide to describe the history of colonialism in Canada.[74] Two years after its opening, Rita K. Dhamoon critiqued the museum's focus on the Holocaust, frame of residential schools as assimilationist and not genocidal, and denial of the genocidal nature of settler colonialism.[75] In 2019, the museum reversed its policy and officially recognizes genocide of Indigenous peoples in Canada in its content.[76]

In 2021, Senator Lynn Beyak generated controversy and was accused of genocide denial in the Canadian Indian residential school system after she voiced disapproval of the final Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada report, saying that it had omitted the positives of the schools.[77][78][79] Similarly, former Conservative Party leader Erin O'Toole said that the residential school system educated Indigenous children,[80] but then changed his view: "The system was intended to remove children from the influence of their homes, families, traditions, and cultures". Former newspaper publisher Conrad Black and others have also been accused of denial.[92]

External videos
  "Push to criminalize residential school denialism in Canada: ‘Difference between free speech and inciting hate’" (2024) – Global News (5:35 min)

In 2022, Gregory Stanton, former president of the International Association of Genocide Scholars, issued a report stating Canada is in the "denial stage" of the ten stages of genocide.[93]This position was reiterated on National Truth and Reconciliation Day in 2023, with prime minister Justin Trudeau stating that denialism was on the rise.after disputes regarding the conclusiveness of the evidence of Indian residential schools gravesite discoveries.[94][95][96] Federal Justice Minister David Lametti said in 2023 that he was open to outlawing residential school denialism.[95] His successor, Arif Virani, has not taken a position on the issue.[97]

Kimberly Murray, from the Office of the Independent Special Interlocutor, released a report in 2023 stating: “a core group of Canadians continue to defend the Indian Residential Schools System … some still deny that children suffered physical, sexual, psychological, cultural, and spiritual abuses, despite the TRC’s indisputable evidence to the contrary. Others try to deny and minimize the destructive impacts of the Indian Residential Schools. They believe Canada’s historical myth that the nation has treated Indigenous Peoples with benevolence and generosity is true.”[98] The report prompted Leah Gazan, an NDP Member of Parliament, to introduce Bill C-413 in 2024 that would ban residential school denialism.[99][100]

In 2022, the Canadian government announced that it would pay C$31.5 billion to reform the foster care system and compensate Indigenous families for its deficiencies.[101] The government has acknowledged the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the foster care system.[102] In 2024, Canada's Indigenous leaders rejected the government's proposal.[103][104]

South America

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Atrocities against the Cinta Larga tribe in Brazil were exposed in the Figueiredo report of 1967. After shooting the head off her baby, the killers cut the mother in half. Survival

According to Nadia Rubaii, the mass atrocities in Latin America have been less visible internationally for three reasons:[105]

  1. Victim groups have frequently been attacked for their ideological or political differences, leading the international community to consider such atrocities as domestic political issues.
  2. Perpetrators who damage ecosystems and means of subsistence argue that they are seeking economic development for common benefit and deny the intention to inflict any harm.
  3. If there is academic attention to the topic, it is documented in Spanish not in English.

Argentina

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Julius Popper targeting Indigenous peoples. 1886. See Selk'nam Genocide.

In Argentina, the Conquest of the Desert had been interpreted in war terms, silencing the fact of Indigenous genocide.[106][107] In the case of the Napalmi massacre, a judge concluded that the massacre took place in a context of genocide.[108][109] According to Walter Delrio et al. in 2010, "The state still denies the existence of genocide and the existence of crimes against humanity with respect to Indigenous peoples."[110]

Paraguay and Brazil

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See also: Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil and Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay

South African sociologist and genocide scholar Leo Kuper says that genocide has been denied in Paraguay and Brazil on the basis of alleged lack of intent to destroy.[111] For instance, the case of the Ache in Paraguay has been legally determined to be a case of political persecution.[112]

Central America

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In Guatemala, debate has occurred over accusations of genocide. The Guatemalan Truth Commission has reported genocide during the 35 year civil war,[113][114] but some Guatemalan politicians have referred to the conflict as a civil war.[115][116][117]

Africa

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The Herero genocide is described as the first genocide of the 20th century.[118][119] In 2012, German politician Uwe Kekeritz said Germany needed to move away from "a culture of denial".[120]

 
Prisoners from the Herero and Nama genocide, 1904-1907

Australia

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See also: Genocide of indigenous peoples in Australia and Australian history wars

Australia has a long history of Indigenous genocide denialism, with the country's treatment of its Indigenous populations being one of the most notorious examples.[121] This denialism has manifested in various ways, from downplaying the severity of the violence to shifting blame onto the victims themselves.[122][123] Debates regarding genocide in Australia have primarily concentrated on historical frontier killings and the removal of children.[124] Since the 1830s, British colonists in Australia have tried to justify the disappearance of indigenous peoples by blaming disease and displacement.[125]Although the term 'genocide' was not used in the 19th century, many colonists called for the extermination of Aborigines who resisted settlement. Awareness of genocide issues was hidden until the 1960s when historians began to explore frontier violence, gaining official support in the 1990s.[125] However, cultural barriers, like 'Holocaust consciousness,' hinder broader acknowledgment of these events, impacting the political understanding of Australia's history.[125] There are still numerous Australian historians who uphold the view that massacres and removal of Indigenous children was neither genocidal nor racist, but instead an action of state intervention.[126]

The Indigenous Australian population experienced the frontier wars, in which there was conflict over territory. Massacres and mass poisonings and the Stolen Generations that saw the displacement of Indigenous children.[127][128]

According to Hannah Baldry, "The Australian Government appears to have long suffered a form of 'denialism' that has consistently deprived the country's Aboriginal population of acknowledgment of the crimes perpetrated against their ancestors."[129] This includes ongoing debates about the interpretation of history, including calling Australia's national myth as an invasion or settlement.[135]

Former Prime Minister John Howard refused to apologize in the Motion of Reconciliation, claiming that the program had no genocidal intent.[139] Former Tasmanian Premier Ray Groom said that "there had been no killing in the island state".[133]

 
Between 1838 and 1931, Aboriginal prisoners held on Rottnest Island, Australia were held in deplorable conditions and subjected to cruel and inhumane treatment.

The Australian literary and cultural journal Quadrant has been considered "a key locus of genocide denial". They included common arguments regarding the definitional status of genocide, including the idea "that 'half castes' could not claim Aboriginal status since they were half-European" and that Indigenous people were to blame for their fate due to "their own backwardness"; other articles argued that "frontier massacres were based on misinterpreted statistics and falsehoods".[140]

Reactions

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A number of states have chosen to take a firm stance against the denial of genocide by enacting laws to criminalize it. The extent of legal coverage varies from one state to another.[141]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Hitchcock, Robert K. (2023). "Denial of Genocide of Indigenous People in the United States". In Der Matossian, Bedross (ed.). Denial of genocides in the twenty-first century. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-1-4962-3554-1. Genocide scholars Susan Chavez Cameron and Loan T. Phan see American Indians as having gone through the ten stages of genocide identified by Stanton. Failure to acknowledge genocide has harmful social and psychological impacts on the victims of genocide, and it leaves the perpetrators in positions of power vis-a-vis others in their societies. As Agnieszka Bienczyk-Missala points out, denial or negation relating to mass crimes consists of denying scientifically proven historical facts by deliberately concealing them and spreading false and misleading information. She goes on to say that the consequences of negationism are of ethical, legal, social, and political character.
  2. ^ a b Fontaine, Theodore (2014). Woolford, Andrew; Benvenuto, Jeff; Hinton, Alexander Laban (eds.). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11sn770. ISBN 978-0-8223-5763-6. JSTOR j.ctv11sn770. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023. "From Lemarchand's volume, it is clear that what is remembered and what is not remembered is a political choice, producing a dominant narrative that reflects the victor's version of history while silencing dissenting voices. Building on a critical genocide studies approach, this volume seeks to contribute to this conversation by critically examining cases of genocide that have been "hidden" politically, socially, culturally, or historically in accordance with broader systems of political and social power". (p2) ...the U.S. government, for most of its existence, stated openly and frequently that its policy was to destroy Native American ways of life through forced integration, forced removal, and death. An 1881 report of the U.S. commissioner of Indian Affairs on the "Indian question" is indicative of the decades- long policy: "There is no one who has been a close observer of Indian history and the effect of contact of Indians with civilization who is not well satisfied that one of two things must eventually take place, to wit, either civilization or extermination of the Indian. Savage and civilized life cannot live and prosper on the same ground. One of the two must die." (p3) "As such it is important for the peoples of the United States and Canada to recognize their shared legacies of genocide, which have too often been hidden, ignored, forgotten, or outright denied." (p3) "After all, much of North America was swindled from Indigenous peoples through the mythical but still powerful Doctrine of Discovery, the perceived right of conquest, and deceitful treaties. Restitution for colonial genocide would thus entail returning stolen territories". (p9) "Thankfully a new generation of genocide scholarship is moving beyond these timeworn and irreconcilable divisions." (p11)"Variations of the Modoc ordeal occurred elsewhere during the conquest and colonization of Africa, Asia, Australia, and North and South America. Indigenous civilizations repeatedly resisted invaders seeking to physically annihilate them in whole or in part. Many of these catastrophes are known as wars. Yet by carefully examining the intentions and actions of colonizers and their advocates it is possible to reinterpret some of these cataclysms as both genocides and wars of resistance. The Modoc case is one of them" (p120). "Memory, remembering, forgetting, and denial are inseparable and critical junctures in the study and examination of genocide. Absence or suppression of memories is not merely a lack of acknowledgment of individual or collective experiences but can also be considered denial of a genocidal crime (p150). Erasure of historical memory and modification of historical narrative influence the perception of genocide. If it is possible to avoid conceptually blocking colonial genocides for a moment, we can consider denial in a colonial context. Perpetrators initiate and perpetuate denial" (p160).
  3. ^ Evans, Gareth (2008). The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and For All. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-0-8157-2504-6. JSTOR 10.7864/j.ctt4cg7fp.
  4. ^ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. pp. 208, 230, 791–793. ISBN 978-1-136-93797-2.
  5. ^ "Indian Tribes and Resources for Native Americans". United States Government. Archived from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2023. The U.S. government officially recognizes 574 Indian tribes in the contiguous 48 states and Alaska.
  6. ^ Totten, Samuel; Hitchcock, Robert K. (2011). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review. Transaction Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4128-4455-0. In Asia, for example, only one country, the Philippines, has officially adopted the term "Indigenous peoples," and established a law specifically to protect Indigenous peoples' rights. Only two countries in Africa, Burundi and Cameroon, have statements about the rights of Indigenous peoples in their constitutions.
  7. ^ Sengar, Bina; Adjoumani, A. Mia Elise (7 March 2023). Indigenous Societies in the Post-colonial World: Responses and Resilience Through Global Perspectives. Springer Nature. p. 318. ISBN 978-981-19-8722-9. Archived from the original on 20 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023. Indigenous populations are communities that live within, or are attached to, geographically distinct traditional habitats or ancestral territories, and who identify themselves as being part of a distinct cultural group, descended from groups present in the area before modern states were created and current borders defined. They generally maintain cultural and social identities, and social, economic, cultural and political institutions, separate from the mainstream or dominant society or culture.
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  9. ^ Englert, Sai (November 2020). "Settlers, Workers, and the Logic of Accumulation by Dispossession". Antipode. 52 (6): 1647–1666. Bibcode:2020Antip..52.1647E. doi:10.1111/anti.12659. hdl:1887/3220822. S2CID 225643194.
  10. ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (2 January 2017). "Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders". African Historical Review. 49 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863. ISSN 1753-2523. S2CID 165086773.
  11. ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (2022). Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 1–32. ISBN 978-1-64792-054-8.
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  13. ^ Bartrop, Paul R. (2012). "Punitive Expeditions and Massacres: Gippsland, Colorado, and the Question of Genocide". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Vol. 6 (1 ed.). Berghahn Books. pp. 194–214. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m. ISBN 978-1-57181-411-1. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m. S2CID 265474265. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023. Much colonization proceeded without genocidal conflict ... But the effects of colonial settlement were quite variable, dependent on a variety of factors, such as the number of settlers, the forms of the colonizing economy and competition for productive resources, policies of the colonizing power, and attitudes to intermarriage or concubinage ... Some of the annihilations of indigenous peoples arose not so much by deliberate act, but in the course of what may be described as a genocidal process: massacres, appropriation of land, introduction of diseases, and arduous conditions of labor.
  14. ^ Kanu, Hassan (18 May 2022). "U.S. confronts 'cultural genocide' in Native American boarding school probe". Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
  15. ^ Farrell, Justin; Burow, Paul Berne; McConnell, Kathryn; Bayham, Jude; Whyte, Kyle; Koss, Gal (29 October 2021). "Effects of land dispossession and forced migration on Indigenous peoples in North America". Science. 374 (6567): eabe4943. doi:10.1126/science.abe4943. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 34709911. S2CID 240153327. Archived from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2023.
  16. ^ Maybury-Lewis, David (15 August 2002). "Genocide against Indigenous Peoples". In Alexander Laban, Alexander (ed.). Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide. University of California Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-520-23029-3. Archived from the original on 5 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023. Imperialist genocide against indigenous peoples was thus of two kinds. It was practiced in order to clear lands that invading settlers wished to occupy. It was also practiced as part of a strategy to seize and coerce labor that the settlers could not or would not obtain by less drastic means.
  17. ^ Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8070-0041-0. Settler colonialism is inherently genocidal in terms of the genocide convention. In the case of the British North American colonies and the United States, not only extermination and removal were practiced but also the disappearing of the prior existence of Indigenous peoples, and this continues to be perpetuated in local histories.
  18. ^ Ostler, Jeffrey (2 March 2015), "Genocide and American Indian History", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.3, ISBN 978-0-19-932917-5, archived from the original on 4 February 2023, retrieved 25 November 2023
  19. ^ Comas, Juan (1971). "Historical reality and the detractors of Father Las Casas". In Friede, Juan; Keen, Benjamin (eds.). Bartolomé de las Casas in History: Toward an Understanding of the Man and his Work. Collection spéciale: CER. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. pp. 487–539. ISBN 978-0-87580-025-7. OCLC 421424974.
  20. ^ Tinker, George E. (1993). Missionary Conquest: The Gospel and Native American Cultural Genocide. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-2576-4. Archived from the original on 5 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
  21. ^ Ginzberg, Eitan (4 September 2020). "Genocide and the Hispanic-American Dilemma". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (2): 122–152. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.2.1666. ISSN 1911-0359. Archived from the original on 8 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2023. The testimonies on which Raphael Lemkin relied led him to conclude that the 'radical accumulation' of the causes of oppression, and the physical, psychological, and spiritual impairment of the Indians–war, so-called 'pacification', robbery, enslavement, exploitation, invasions, feelings of worthlessness, political delegitimization, systematic religious conversion, cultural annihilation, uprooting and displacement–overwhelmed the Indians' entire array of self-protective norms and measures, and ultimately broke their spirits.
  22. ^ [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]
  23. ^ Aranda, Dario (2010). Aboriginal Argentina: Genocide, Loot and Resistance (Argentina Originaria: Genocidios, Saqueos y Resistencias) (in Spanish) (1st ed.). IWGIA – International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. ISBN 978-987-21900-6-4. Archived from the original on 18 March 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
  24. ^ Rosenbaum, Ron (March 2013). "The Shocking Savagery of America's Early History". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2023. It's a grand drama in which the glimmers of enlightenment barely survive the savagery, what Yeats called "the blood-dimmed tide", the brutal establishment of slavery, the race wars with the original inhabitants that Bailyn is not afraid to call "genocidal", the full, horrifying details of which have virtually been erased.
  25. ^ Allard-Tremblay, Yann; Coburn, Elaine (May 2023). "The Flying Heads of Settler Colonialism; or the Ideological Erasures of Indigenous Peoples in Political Theorizing". Political Studies. 71 (2): 359–378. doi:10.1177/00323217211018127. ISSN 0032-3217. S2CID 236234578. Since the publication of Wolfe's (2006: 388) Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native, the idea that settler colonialism is 'a structure not an event' has taken root and is now foundational to scholarship in settler-colonial studies.
  26. ^ Gigoux, Carlos (2 January 2022). ""Condemned to Disappear": Indigenous Genocide in Tierra del Fuego". Journal of Genocide Research. 24 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1853359. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 230565181. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023. Nation state building, competing sovereign claims, the capitalist drive for land and resources fuelled by international market forces and prevalent racial ideologies can be identified as major structural factors that leads to the dispossession of indigenous lands and in many cases to the physical destruction of indigenous peoples. In this context settler colonial studies continues to work towards a theory of settler colonialism.
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  28. ^ "Genocide Background". United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023.
  29. ^ White, Richard (17 August 2016). "Naming America's Own Genocide". Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2023. In defining genocide, Madley relies on the criteria of the United Nations Genocide Convention, which has served as the basis for the genocide trials of defendants from Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia and has been employed at the International Criminal Court in The Hague.
  30. ^ Charny, Israel W. (February 1997). "Toward a Generic Definition of Genocide". In Andreopoulos, George J. (ed.). Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 74–76. ISBN 978-0-8122-1616-5. Charny offeres a definition of colonial genocide: "Genocide that is undertaken or even allowed in the course of or incidental to the purposes of achieving a goal of colonization or development of a territory belonging to an indigenous people, or any other consolidation of political or economic power through mass killing of those perceived to be standing in the way."{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  31. ^ "Pueblos indígenas como víctimas de los genocidios pasados y actuales". Opera (in Spanish) (25): 29–54. 17 June 2019. doi:10.18601/16578651.n25.03. ISSN 2346-2159. S2CID 197689643. Archived from the original on 26 September 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  32. ^ Herman, Edward S.; Chomsky, Noam (1988). Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. Pantheon Books. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-394-54926-2.
  33. ^ Jones, Adam (7 May 2020). "Chomsky and Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (1): 76–104. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1738. S2CID 218959996.
  34. ^ Campbell, Bradley (June 2009). "Genocide as Social Control". Sociological Theory. 27 (2): 150–172. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x. ISSN 0735-2751. Archived from the original on 12 December 2022. Retrieved 24 December 2023. [G]enocide varies directly with immobility, cultural distance, relational distance, functional independence, and inequality; and it is greater in a downward direction than in an upward or lateral direction. This theory of genocide can be applied to numerous genocides throughout history, and it is capable of ordering much of the known variation in genocide - such as when and where it occurs, how severe it is, and who participates.
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  140. ^ MacDonald, David B. (2 October 2015). "Canada's history wars: indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia and Canada". Journal of Genocide Research. 17 (4): 411–431. doi:10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 74512843. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
  141. ^ Pruitt, William R. (22 October 2017). "Understanding Genocide Denial Legislation: A Comparative Analysis". International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences. 12 (2): 270–284. doi:10.5281/ZENODO.1034674. Archived from the original on 3 August 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
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Further reading

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