Unification or Death (Serbian: Ujedinjenje ili smrt, Serbian Cyrillic: Уједињење или смрт), popularly known as the Black Hand (Serbian: Crna ruka, Serbian Cyrillic: Црна рука), was a secret military society formed in May 1911 by officers in the Army of the Kingdom of Serbia. It gained a reputation for its alleged involvement in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 and for the earlier assassination of the Serbian royal couple in 1903, under the aegis of Captain Dragutin Dimitrijević (a.k.a. "Apis").[3]
| Unification or Death | |
|---|---|
| Ujedinjenje ili smrt Уједињење или смрт | |
 Unification or Death's logo | |
| Also known as | Black Hand |
| Leader | Dragutin Dimitrijević |
| Foundation | May 1911 (as Unification or Death)[1][2] |
| Active regions | Balkan Peninsula |
| Ideology | Yugoslavism Greater Serbia Serbian nationalism |
| Notable attacks | Killing of Alexander I Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand |
The society formed to unite all of the territories with a South Slavic majority that were not then ruled by either Serbia or Montenegro. It took inspiration primarily from the unification of Italy in 1859–1870, but also from the unification of Germany in 1871.[4][5] Through its connections to the June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, carried out by the members of the youth movement Young Bosnia, the Black Hand was instrumental in starting World War I (1914–1918) by precipitating the July Crisis of 1914, which eventually led to Austria-Hungary's invasion of the Kingdom of Serbia in August 1914.[6]
Background
editApis' conspiracy group and the May Coup
editThis section needs expansion with: events occurring in the long time span between the described regicide and the events of the next subsection. You can help by adding to it. (April 2017) |
In August 1901, a group of lower officers headed by captain Dragutin Dimitrijević "Apis" established a conspiracy group (called the Black Hand in literature), against the dynasty.[7] The first meeting was held on 6 September 1901. In attendance were captains Radomir Aranđelović, Milan F. Petrović, and Dragutin Dimitrijević, as well as lieutenants Antonije Antić, Dragutin Dulić, Milan Marinković, and Nikodije Popović.[8] They made a plan to kill the royal couple—King Alexander I Obrenović and Queen Draga. On the night of 28/29 May 1903 (Old Style), Captain Apis personally led a group of Army officers who murdered the royal couple at the Old Palace in Belgrade. Along with the royal couple, the conspirators killed Prime Minister Dimitrije Cincar-Marković, Minister of the Army Milovan Pavlović, and General-Adjutant Lazar Petrović. This became known as the May Coup.
National defense
editOn 8 October 1908, just two days after Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbian ministers, officials, and generals held a meeting at the City Hall in Belgrade. They founded a semi-secret society, the Narodna Odbrana ("National Defense") which gave Pan-Serbism a focus and an organization. The purpose of the group was to liberate Serbs under the Austro-Hungarian occupation. They also shared anti-Austrian propaganda and organized spies and saboteurs to operate within the occupied provinces. Satellite groups were formed in Slovenia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Istria. The Bosnian group became deeply associated with local groups of pan-Serb activists such as Mlada Bosna ("Young Bosnia").[9]
Establishment
edit
Unification or Death was established at the beginning of May 1911,[10] and the original constitution of the organization was signed on 9 May.[11] Ljuba Čupa, Bogdan Radenković, and Vojislav Tankosić wrote the constitution of the organization,[12] modeled after similar German secret nationalist associations and the Italian Carbonari.[12][13] The organization was mentioned in the Serbian parliament as the "Black Hand" in late 1911.[14]
By 1911–12, Narodna Odbrana had established ties with the Black Hand, and the two became "parallel in action and overlapping in membership".[15]
1911–13
editThe organization used the magazine Pijemont (the Serbian name for Piedmont, the kingdom that led the unification of Italy under the House of Savoy) for the dissemination of their ideas.[16] The magazine was founded by Ljuba Čupa in August 1911.[17]
1914
editBy 1914, the group had hundreds of members, many of them Serbian Army officers. The goal of uniting Serb-inhabited territories was implemented by training guerilla fighters and saboteurs. The Black Hand was organized at the grassroots level in cells of three to five members, supervised by district committees and by a Central Committee in Belgrade, whose ten-member executive committee was primarily led by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijević "Apis". To ensure secrecy, members rarely knew much more than the other members of their own cell and one superior above them. New members swore the oath:
I (...), by entering into the society, do hereby swear by the Sun which shineth upon me, by the Earth which feedeth me, by God, by the blood of my forefathers, by my honour and by my life, that from this moment onward and until my death, I shall faithfully serve the task of this organisation and that I shall at all times be prepared to bear for it any sacrifice. I further swear by God, by my honour and by my life, that I shall unconditionally carry into effect all its orders and commands. I further swear by my God, by my honour and by my life, that I shall keep within myself all the secrets of this organisation and carry them with me into my grave. May God and my brothers in this organisation be my judges if at any time I should wittingly fail or break this oath.[18]
The Black Hand took over the terrorist actions[which?] of Narodna Odbrana and deliberately worked to obscure any distinctions between the two groups, trading on the prestige and network of the older organization. Black Hand members held important army and government positions. Crown Prince Alexander was an enthusiastic financial supporter.[19] The group held influence over government appointments and policies. The Serbian government was fairly well-informed of Black Hand activities.
Friendly relations had fairly well cooled by 1914. The Black Hand was displeased with Prime Minister Nikola Pašić and thought that he did not act aggressively enough for the Pan-Serb cause. The Black Hand engaged in a bitter power struggle over several issues, such as who would control territories that Serbia had annexed during the Balkan Wars. By then, disagreeing with the Black Hand was dangerous, as political murder was one of its tools.
In 1914, Apis allegedly decided that Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir-apparent of Austria, should be assassinated, as he was trying to pacify the Serbians, which would prevent a revolution if he was successful. Towards that end, three young Bosnian Serbs were allegedly recruited to kill the Archduke. They were certainly trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship by current and former members of the Serbian military. Gavrilo Princip, Nedeljko Čabrinović, and Trifko Grabež were smuggled across the border back into Bosnia by a chain of contacts similar to the Underground Railroad. The decision to kill the Archduke was initiated by Apis and not sanctioned by the full Executive Committee (if Apis was involved at all, a question that remains in dispute[20]).
Legacy
editThe Black Hand was outlawed in Serbia in 1917, although its ideas continued to be influential after World War One and Two. An organization known as the White Hand was created and inspired by it.[21]
In 1938, Konspiracija, a conspiracy group to overthrow the Yugoslav regency was founded by, among others, members of the Serbian Cultural Club (SKK).[22] The organization was modeled after the Black Hand, including the recruitment process.[23] Two members of the Black Hand, Antonije Antić and Velimir Vemić, were the organization's military advisors.[24]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Martel, Gordon (2014). The Month that Changed the World: July 1914 and WWI. Oxford University Press. pp. 58–60. ISBN 978-0191643279.
- ^ Newman, John Paul (2015). Yugoslavia in the Shadow of War. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-1107070769.
- ^ "Black Hand | secret Serbian society". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 February 2019.
- ^ Gavrilo Princip and the Black Hand organization. Bookrags.
- ^ Alan Cassels (1996). Ideology and international relations in the modern world. Psychology Press. pp. 122–. ISBN 978-0415119269.
- ^ David Stevenson (2012). 1914–1918: The History of the First World War. Penguin. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-141-90434-4.
- ^ Borislav Ratković; Mitar Đurišić; Savo Skoko (1972). Srbija i Crna Gora u balkanskim ratovima 1912–1913. Beogradski izdavačko-grafički zavod.
Y августу 1901. нижи официри су, под руководством капетана Драгутина Димитр^евиhа – Аписа, створили заверенички покрет против ди- насти е ("Црна рука").
- ^ Antić & 2010-11-20.
- ^ Clark, Christopher (2012). The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914. Penguin UK. p. 69. ISBN 978-0718192952.
- ^ Đorđe Radenković (1997). Pašić i Srbija. Službeni list SRJ. p. 462. ISBN 978-8635503332.
- ^ Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti (1955). Posebna izdanja. Vol. 243. p. 199.
Оригинални Устав истого, друштва од 9/22 ма]а 1911 год. са своеручним потписила опт.
- ^ a b Stanoje Stanojević (1929). Narodna enciklopedija srpsko-hrvatsko-slovenačka, knjiga 2 (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb. p. 181.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Trotsky, Leon (1916). "The Big Lie: The Defence of Small Nations". Retrieved 6 November 2022.
- ^ Olga Popović-Obradović (1998). Parlamentarizam u Srbiji od 1903. do 1914. godine. Službeni list SRJ. p. 158. ISBN 978-8635504032.
- ^ Victor Roudometof (2001). Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy: The Social Origins of Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 170–. ISBN 978-0313319495.
- ^ NIN. nedeljne informativne novine. Politika. 2004.
- ^ "Пијемонт". Veliki rat. National Library of Serbia.
- ^ Pressonline.rs Archived 12 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine Press (7 October 2011). Retrieved on 2011-11-08. (in Serbian)
- ^ "Šta je bila Crna ruka i ko je bio Dragutin Dimitrijević Apis". BBC News na srpskom (in Serbian (Latin script)). 2 April 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
- ^ Vladimer Dedijer, The Road to Sarajevo
- ^ "The Black Hand: Overview & WWI Role". Study.com. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
- ^ Kazimirović 1995, p. 653.
- ^ Kazimirović 1995, p. 654.
- ^ Zečević 2003, p. 335.
Sources
edit- Antić, Antonije (20 November 2010). "Škola gnezdo zavere". Novosti.
- Apis, Dragutin T. Dimitrijević (1918). Tajna prevratna organizacija. Velika Srbija.
- Dedijer, Vladimir (1966). The Road to Sarajevo. Simon and Schuster.
- Kazimirović, Vasa (1995). Srbija i Jugoslavija, 1914–1945: Srbija i Jugoslavija između dva svetska rata. Prizma. ISBN 978-8670840010.
- Kazimirović, Vasa (1997). Crna ruka: ličnosti i događaji u Srbiji od prevrata 1903. do Solunskog procesa 1917. godine. Prizma. ISBN 978-8670840164.
- MacKenzie, David (1995). The "Black Hand" on Trial: Salonika, 1917. East European Monographs. ISBN 978-0880333207.
- MacKenzie, David (1998). The Exoneration of the "Black Hand," 1917–1953. East European Monographs. ISBN 978-0880334143.
- MacKenzie, David (1989). Apis, the Congenial Conspirator: The Life of Colonel Dragutin T. Dimitrijević. East European Monographs. ISBN 978-0880331623.
- MacKenzie, David (1982). "Serbian Nationalist and Military Organizations and the Piedmont Idea, 1844–1914". East European Quarterly. 16 (3): 323–.
- Remak, Joachim (1971). The Origins of World War I: 1871–1914. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0136427445.
- Zečević, Momčilo (2003). Prošlost i vreme: iz istorije Jugoslavije. Prosveta. ISBN 978-8607013937.
Further reading
edit- Bataković, Dušan T. (2006). "Nikola Pašić: The Radicals and the "Black hand" challenges to parliamentary democracy in Serbia 1903–1917". Balcanica (37): 143–69. doi:10.2298/BALC0637143B.
- Blakley, Patrick R. F. "Narodna Odbrana (The Black Hand): Terrorist Faction that Divided the World" (PDF). Oswego Historical Review. 2: 13–34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- Gilfond, Henry (1975). The Black Hand at Sarajevo. Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0672520702. OCLC 1692249.
- Jelavich, Barbara (1991). "What the Habsburg Government Knew about the Black Hand". Austrian History Yearbook. 22: 131–50. doi:10.1017/S0067237800019913. S2CID 146532495.
- Nešković, Borivoje (1953). Istina o solunskom procesu. Narodna knjiga.
External links
edit
- "The Constitution of the Ujedinjenje ili Smrt (Unification or Death)". "Black Hand over Europe" by Henri Pozzi, 1935. Projekat Rastko. 1935 [1911].
- Lutz, Hermann. "The Serbian 'Black Hand'," The Freeman, Vol. 7, N°. 164, pp. 179–81, 2 May 1923.
- John Paul Newman: Black Hand, in: 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.