Wikipedia

Pacific hurricane

(Redirected from Central Pacific hurricane)
This article is about tropical cyclones that form in the Northern Hemisphere east of the International Date Line. For storms that form in the southern hemisphere, also occasionally known as hurricanes, see South Pacific tropical cyclone.

A Pacific hurricane is a tropical cyclone that develops within the northeastern and central Pacific Ocean to the east of 180°W, north of the equator. For tropical cyclone warning purposes, the northern Pacific is divided into three regions: the eastern (North America to 140°W), central (140°W to 180°), and western (180° to 100°E), while the southern Pacific is divided into 2 sections, the Australian region (90°E to 160°E) and the southern Pacific basin between 160°E and 120°W.[1] Identical phenomena in the western north Pacific are called typhoons. This separation between the two basins has a practical convenience, however, as tropical cyclones rarely form in the central north Pacific due to high vertical wind shear, and few cross the dateline.

Cumulative average number of tropical cyclones in the north Pacific

List of seasons

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Historical storm formation by month between 1990 and 2020
25
50
75
100
125
150
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
  •   Category 5
  •   Category 4
  •   Category 3
  •   Category 2
  •   Category 1
  •   Tropical storm
  •   Tropical depression
Period Seasons
Pre-1920s Before 1900, 1900s, 1910s
1920s 1920–1924, 1925, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929
1930s 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939
1940s 1940, 1941, 1942–1948, 1949
1950s 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959
1960s 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969
1970s 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979
1980s 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989
1990s 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999
2000s 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009
2010s 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
2020s 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025

1950s

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Year TD TS HU MH Strongest
storm		 Deaths Damages
(USD)		 Notes
1950 – 7 6 0  1  Hiki 1 Unknown Includes Hiki, the third wettest tropical cyclone in the United States.
1951 – 9 2 0  1  Two
 1  Eight		 0 Unknown
1952 – 7 3 0  1  Five
 1  Seven		 0 Unknown
1953 – 4 2 0  TS  One 0 Unknown
1954 11 11 4 0  TS  Seven 40 Unknown
1955 – 6 2 0  1  One 0 Unknown
1956 – 11 7 0  1  One 0 Unknown
1957 – 13 9 1  4  Twelve 21 $100,000
1958 14 14 5 0  1  Eleven 0 Unknown
1959 15 15 5 3  5  Patsy >1,800 $280 million Patsy was the first known category 5 hurricane in the Central Pacific basin.
Includes the deadliest tropical cyclone in the Eastern Pacific, the 1959 Mexico hurricane.

1960s

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Year TD TS HU MH Strongest
storm		 Deaths Damages
(USD)		 Notes
1960 8 8 5 0  1  Estelle 0 Unknown
1961 11 10 2 0  1  Iva 436 $16 million
1962 18 12 2 0  1  Doreen Unknown $11 million
1963 8 8 4 0  1  Mona Unknown Unknown
1964 6 6 2 0  2  Odessa Unknown Unknown Least active season since 1953.
1965 11 10 1 0  1  Emily 6 $10 million
1966 18 13 8 0  1  Connie 9+ $5.6 million Includes the farthest traveled storm in the Eastern Pacific, Blanca.
1967 17 17 6 1  3  Olivia 121 Unknown
1968 26 20 6 0  1  Rebecca 9 Unknown Tied with 2009 for having the most storms named in the month of August.
1969 15 10 4 0  1  Doreen 10 Unknown Includes the latest first-named storm at that time, Ava, which formed in July.

1970s

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Year TD TS HU MH ACE Strongest
storm		 Deaths Damages
(USD)		 Notes
1970 21 19 5 0  2  Lorraine 22 Unknown
1971 22 18 12 6 139  3  Olivia 52 $40 million First year of reliable records in the eastern and central Pacific basins.
1972 20 14 9 4 136  4  Celeste 1 $75,000
1973 18 12 7 3 114  5  Ava 0 Unknown Featured the strongest hurricane in the basin at the time and the earliest category five in the Eastern Pacific on record.
1974 25 18 11 3 90  4  Maggie 18–33 $4 million Featured one of the most active periods of tropical cyclones on record with five existing simultaneously (Ione, Joyce, Kirsten, Lorraine, and Maggie).
1975 21 17 9 4 112  4  Denise 30 $20 million
1976 19 15 9 5 121  4  Annette 614–964 $360 million
1977 17 8 4 0 22  2  Florence 8 $39.6 million Least active season until 2010.
Featured no major hurricanes, tied with 2003.
1978 25 19 14 7 207  4  Fico
 4  Hector
 4  Norman		 4 $301 million First season to use masculine and feminine names.
1979 13 10 6 4 57  4  Ignacio Unknown Unknown Most recent year in which no tropical cyclones crossed into the Central Pacific basin.
Total 201 150 86 36 1110 Ava 767–1,102 ≥$385.075 million

1980s

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Year TD TS HU MH ACE Strongest
storm		 Deaths Damages
(USD)		 Notes
1980 16 15 7 3 77  4  Kay 0 Unknown
1981 17 15 8 1 72  3  Norma 79 $134 million
1982 30 23 12 5 161  4  Olivia 1,937 $1.3 billion Fifth most active season on record.
1983 26 21 12 8 206  4  Kiko
 4  Raymond		 168 $303.33 million Tied with 1984 for the fourth most active season at the time.
1984 26 21 13 7 193  4  Douglas 21 Unknown Tied with 1983 for the fourth most active season at the time.
1985 28 24 12 8 192  4  Rick 1 $1 million Third most active season on record.
Tied with 2018 for having five named storms in the month of June.
Tied with 2015 and 2016 for the most active month of July since reliable records began.
1986 26 17 9 3 107  4  Roslyn 2 $352 million
1987 20 20 10 4 132  4  Max 3 $144.22 million Last year in which the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center was the primary warning center for tropical cyclones in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
1988 23 15 7 3 127  4  Hector 24 Unknown Hurricane Joan crossed over Central America and was named Miriam in the Eastern Pacific basin.
1989 25 18 9 4 110  4  Raymond 14 $1.75 million
Total 237 189 99 46 1377 Max 2,250 ≥$2.240 billion

1990s

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Year TD TS HU MH ACE Strongest
storm		 Deaths Damages
(USD)		 Notes
1990 27 21 16 6 245  4  Trudy 19 $12.5 million Fifth most active season on record and third most active in terms of ACE.
Tied with 1992, 2014, and 2015 for the most hurricanes in a single season.
1991 16 14 10 5 178  4  Kevin 11 Unknown
1992 30 27 16 10 295  4  Tina 25 $3.15 billion Most active Pacific hurricane season on record.
Second-most active Pacific hurricane season on record in terms of ACE.
Tied with 1990, 2014, and 2015 for the most hurricanes in a single season.
Includes the strongest hurricane on record to strike Hawaii, Iniki.
Hurricane Ekeka is the most intense off-season hurricane in the Pacific basin.
1993 18 15 11 9 201  4  Lidia 50 $40 million
1994 23 20 10 5 185  5  Gilma 26 $735 million Tied with 2002 and 2018 for having the most category 5 hurricanes in a single season.
Includes the tropical cyclone that travelled the farthest distance on record, Hurricane John. It was also the longest-lasting tropical cyclone ever observed until surpassed by Cyclone Freddy in 2023.
1995 11 10 7 3 100  4  Juliette 124 $31 million Least active season since 1979.
1996 14 9 5 2 53  4  Douglas 48 $813,000 Tied with 2021 for the most hurricanes to strike Mexico in a single season.
Hurricane Cesar crossed over from Central America and was renamed Douglas in the Pacific basin.
1997 24 19 9 7 167  5  Linda 261–531 $551 million Hurricane Linda was the most intense hurricane in the Pacific basin until Patricia in 2015.
1998 16 13 9 6 134  4  Howard 54 $760 million
1999 14 9 6 2 90  4  Dora 16 None
Total 193 157 99 55 1,648 Linda 581–853 ≥$4.9 billion

2000s

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Year TD TS HU MH ACE Strongest
storm		 Deaths Damages
(USD)		 Notes
2000 21 19 6 2 95  4  Carlotta 27 $84 million
2001 19 15 8 2 90  4  Juliette 13 $401 million
2002 19 15 8 6 124  5  Kenna 7 $101 million Tied with 1994 and 2018 for having the most category 5 hurricanes in a single season.
Includes the fourth most intense hurricane in the Pacific basin, Kenna.
2003 17 16 7 0 56  2  Nora 23 $129 million Featured no major hurricanes, tied with 1977.
2004 18 12 6 3 71  4  Javier None None
2005 17 15 7 2 96  4  Kenneth 6 $12 million
2006 25 19 11 6 155  5  Ioke 14 $355 million Most active since 2000.
Includes the most intense hurricane in the Central Pacific basin, Ioke.
2007 15 11 4 1 52  4  Flossie 42 $80 million
2008 19 17 7 2 83  4  Norbert 45 $153 million
2009 23 20 8 5 127  5  Rick 16 $226 million Most active since 1994.
Tied with 1968 for having the most storms named in the month of August.
Includes the third most intense hurricane in the Pacific basin, Rick.
Total 192 159 72 29 949 Rick 193 ≥$1.54 billion

2010s

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Year TD TS HU MH ACE Strongest
storm		 Deaths Damages
(USD)		 Notes
2010 13 8 3 2 52  5  Celia 268 $1.62 billion Least active Pacific hurricane season on record, tied with 1977.
Includes a Category 5 hurricane in the basin, Celia.
Includes a rare-off season in the month of December, Omeka.
2011 13 11 10 6 121  4  Dora 43 >$203.67 million
2012 17 17 10 5 98  4  Emilia 8 $27.9 million
2013 21 20 9 1 76  3  Raymond 194 $4.56 billion
2014 23 22 16 9 199  5  Marie 49 >$1.52 billion Fourth most active season on record.
Tied with 1990, 1992, and 2015 for the most hurricanes in a single season.
2015 31 26 16 11 287  5  Patricia 45 $566 million Second most active season on record.
Includes the most intense hurricane in the Pacific basin, Patricia.
Tied with 1990, 1992, and 2014 for the most hurricanes in a single season.
Tied with 1985 and 2016 for the most active month of July since reliable records began.
Latest ending to a season on record.
2016 23 22 13 6 183  4  Seymour 11 $95.8 million Earliest start on record in the Pacific basin.
Fourth most active season on record.
Tied with 1985 and 2015 for the most active month of July since reliable records began.
Agatha was the latest forming first-named storm on record in the Eastern Pacific since reliable records began.
2017 20 18 9 4 100  4  Fernanda 45 $375.28 million
2018 26 23 13 10 318  5  Walaka 56 >$1.46 billion Fourth-most active season on record.
Most active Pacific hurricane season on record in terms of ACE.
Tied with 1985 for the most named storms on record in the month of June (5).
Tied with 1994 and 2002 for having the most Category 5 hurricanes in a single season.
2019 21 19 7 4 97  4  Barbara 7 $16.1 million Third-latest first named storm since reliable records began in 1971.
No hurricanes formed in August for the first time since 1973.
Total 208 186 106 58 1531 Patricia 723 ≥$10.2 billion

2020s

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Year TD TS HU MH ACE Strongest
storm		 Deaths Damages
(USD)		 Notes
2020 21 17 4 3 77.3  4  Marie 47 >$276.91 million First season since 2019 in which no tropical cyclones formed in the Central Pacific basin.
Featured one unnamed tropical storm which was operationally classified as a tropical depression.
2021 19 19 8 2 94  4  Felicia 13 >$255 million Earliest start to a season east of 140°E on record, second earliest fifth named storm on record.
Second consecutive in which no tropical cyclones formed in the Central Pacific basin.
First season in a row to have at least five systems make landfall in Mexico.
2022 19 19 10 4 116.5  4  Darby 33 >$123.3 million Featured two tropical cyclones that crossed over from the Atlantic (Bonnie and Julia).
Third consecutive season in which no tropical cyclones formed in the Central Pacific basin.
Second season in a row to have at least five systems make landfall.
2023 20 17 10 8 163.2  5  Otis >67 >$13.07 billion Costliest Pacific hurricane season on record.
Adrian was the second-latest forming first-named storm on record in the Eastern Pacific since reliable records began.
Fourth and final consecutive season in which no tropical cyclones formed in the Central Pacific basin.
Featured Hurricanes Jova and Otis, two of the fastest intensifying Pacific hurricanes on record.
Otis was also the first Pacific hurricane to make landfall at Category 5 intensity.
Tied with 1992 for the most named storms in October.
First, and only season on record to have two named storms get retired in the same year (Dora and Otis).
2024 13 12 5 3 82  5  Kristy 29 >$2.51 billion Latest start to a Pacific hurricane season on record.
Hone became the first Central Pacific basin since Ema in 2019.
Least active season since 2011.
Fourth costliest Pacific hurricane season on record.
Total 92 84 37 19 516 Otis 190 ≥$14.7 billion

History

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Tracks of East Pacific tropical cyclones (1980–2005)

Documentation of Pacific hurricanes dates to the Spanish colonization of Mexico, when the military and missions wrote about "tempestades". In 1730, such accounts indicated an understanding of the storms. After observing the rotating nature of tropical cyclones, meteorologist William Charles Redfield expanded his study to include storms in the eastern North Pacific Ocean in the middle of the 19th century. Between June and October 1850, Redfield observed five tropical cyclones along "the southwestern coast of North America", along with one in each of the three subsequent years. In 1895, Cleveland Abbe reported the presence of many storms between 5° and 15°–N in the eastern Pacific, although many such storms dissipated before affecting the Mexican coast. Two years later, the German Hydrography Office Deutsche Seewarte documented 45 storms from 1832 to 1892 off the west coast of Mexico.[2]

Despite the documentation of storms in the region, the official position of the United States Weather Bureau denied the existence of such storms. In 1910, the agency reported on global tropical cyclones, noting that "the occurrence of tropical storms is confined to the summer and autumn months of the respective hemispheres and to the western parts of the several oceans." In 1913, the Weather Bureau reinforced their position by excluding Pacific storms among five tropical cyclone basins; however, the agency acknowledged the existence of "certain cyclones that have been traced for a relatively short distance along a northwest course... west of Central America."[2]

After California became a state and the discovery of gold there in 1848, shipping traffic began increasing steadily in the eastern Pacific. Such activity increased further after the Panama Canal opened in 1914, and the shipping lanes moved closer to the coast. By around 1920, Pacific hurricanes were officially recognized due to widespread ship observations, radio service, and a newly created weather network in western Mexico. Within 60 years, further studies of the region's tropical activity indicated that the eastern Pacific is in fact the second most active basin in the world.[2]

During the 1920s, a few documents in the Monthly Weather Review reported additional storms within 2,000 mi (3,200 km) off the Mexican coastline.[3][4]

The Eastern and Central Pacific hurricane database

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The Eastern Pacific hurricane best track database was initially compiled on magnetic tape in 1976 for the seasons between 1949 and 1975, at the NHC to help with the development of two tropical cyclone forecast models, which required tracks of past cyclones as a base for its predictions.[5][6] The database was based on records held by the United States Navy and were interpolated from 12 hourly intervals to 6 hourly intervals based on a scheme devised by Hiroshi Akima in 1970.[7][8] Initially tracks for the Central Pacific region and tracks for tropical depressions that did not develop into tropical storms or hurricanes were not included within the database.[8] After the database had been created Arthur Pike of the NHC made some internal adjustments, while in 1980 a review was made by Arnold Court under contract from the United States National Weather Service and resulted in additions and/or modifications to 81 tracks in the database.[7][9] Between 1976 and 1987, the NHC archived best track data from the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center (EPHC), and in 1982 started including information on Central Pacific tropical storms and hurricanes started to be included in the database based on data from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and research done by Samuel Shaw of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC) in 1981.[5][7]

The format of the database was completely revised by the NHC during 1984, so that the format could resemble the Atlantic database before they took over the warning responsibility from the EPHC for the Eastern Pacific during 1988.[7][9][10] During 2008 and 2013 several revisions were made to the database to extend tracks in land, based on reports in the Mariners Weather Log and extrapolation of the tracks since the EPHC stopped issuing advisories on systems before they made landfall.[11] The archives format was significantly changed during 2013 to include non-synoptic best track times, non-developing tropical depressions and wind radii.[12] During February 2016, the NHC released the 1959 Mexico hurricane's reanalysis, which was the first system to be reassessed, using methods developed for the Atlantic reanalysis process.[13]

Climatology

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The presence of a semi-permanent high-pressure area known as the North Pacific High in the eastern Pacific is a dominant factor against the formation of tropical cyclones in the winter, as the Pacific High results in wind shear that causes unfavorable, environmental conditions for tropical cyclone formation. Its effects in the central Pacific basin are usually related to keeping cyclones away from the Hawaiian Islands. Due to westward trade winds, hurricanes in the Pacific rarely head eastward, unless recurved by a trough. A second factor preventing tropical cyclones from forming during the winter is the occupation of a semi-permanent low-pressure area designated the Aleutian Low between January and April. Its presence over western Canada and the northwestern United States contributes to the area's occurrences of precipitation in that duration. In addition, its effects in the central Pacific near 160° W causes tropical waves that form in the area to drift northward into the Gulf of Alaska and dissipate. The retreat of this low allows the Pacific High to also retreat into the central Pacific, leaving a warm and moist environment in its wake. The Intertropical Convergence Zone comes northward into the East Pacific in mid-May permitting the formation of the earliest tropical waves,[14] coinciding with the start of the eastern Pacific hurricane season on May 15.[15]

The El Niño–Southern Oscillation also influences the frequency and intensity of hurricanes in the Northeast Pacific basin. During El Niño events, sea surface temperatures increase in the Northeast Pacific and vertical wind shear decreases. Because of this, an increase in tropical cyclone activity occurs; the opposite happens in the Atlantic basin during El Niño, where increased wind shear creates an unfavorable environment for tropical cyclone formation.[16] Contrary to El Niño, La Niña events increase wind shear and decreases sea surface temperatures over the eastern Pacific, while reducing wind shear and increasing sea surface temperatures over the Atlantic.[14]

Eastern North Pacific

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Historical East Pacific Seasonal Activity, 1971–2007. Data on ACE is considered reliable starting with the 1971 season

Hurricane season runs between May 15 and November 30 each year.[17] These dates encompass the vast majority of tropical cyclone activity in this region.

The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for this basin is the United States' National Hurricane Center.[18] Previous forecasters are the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center and the Joint Hurricane Warning Center. The RSMC monitors the eastern Pacific and issues reports, watches and warnings about tropical weather systems and cyclones as defined by the World Meteorological Organization.

This area is, on average, the second-most active basin in the world. There are an average of 16 tropical storms annually, with 9 becoming hurricanes, and 4 becoming major hurricanes.[19] Tropical cyclones in this region frequently affect mainland Mexico and the Revillagigedo Islands. Less often, a system will affect the Continental United States or Central America. Northbound hurricanes typically reduce to tropical storms or dissipate before reaching the United States: there is only one recorded case of a Pacific system reaching California as a hurricane in almost 200 years of observations—the 1858 San Diego Hurricane.[20]

Most east Pacific hurricanes originate from a tropical wave that drifts westward across the intertropical convergence zone, and across northern parts of South America. Once it reaches the Pacific, a surface low begins to develop, however, with only little or no convection. After reaching the Pacific, it starts to move north-westward and eventually west. By that time, it develops convection and thunderstorm activity from the warm ocean temperatures but remains disorganized. Once the tropical wave becomes organized, it becomes a tropical depression. Formation usually occurs from south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec to south of Baja California with a more westerly location earlier in the season. In the eastern Pacific, development is more centered than anywhere else. If wind shear is low, a tropical cyclone can undergo rapid intensification as a result of very warm oceans, becoming a major hurricane. Tropical cyclones weaken once they reach unfavorable areas for a tropical cyclone formation. Their remnants sometimes reach Hawaii and cause showers there.

There are a few types of Pacific hurricane tracks: one is a westerly track, another moves north-westward along Baja California and another moves north. Sometimes storms can move north-east either across Central America or mainland Mexico and possibly enter the Caribbean Sea becoming a North Atlantic hurricane, but these are rare.

Central Pacific

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Hurricane season runs from June 1 to November 30, with a strong peak in August and September. However, tropical cyclones have formed outside those dates.[17] The Central Pacific Hurricane Center is the RSMC for this basin and monitors the storms that develop or move into the defined area of responsibility. A previous forecaster was the Joint Hurricane Warning Center.

It is rare that tropical cyclones form in the Central Pacific, though on average 3 or 4 storms move into this area per year, primarily from the Eastern Pacific, but also on rare occasions from across the International Dateline in the Western Pacific. Most often, storms that occur in the area are weak and often decline in strength upon entry. The only land masses impacted by tropical cyclones in this region are Hawaii and Johnston Atoll. Due to the small size of the islands in relation to the Pacific Ocean, direct hits and landfalls are rare.

Steering factors

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See also: Tropical cyclone track forecasting and Subtropical ridge

Hurricanes in the Eastern Pacific tend to move westward out to sea, harming no land—unless they cross into the Central Pacific or Western Pacific basins, in which case they might harm land such as Hawaii or Japan. However, hurricanes can recurve to the north or northeast, hitting Central America or Mexico early and late in the hurricane season.

Extremes

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Main article: List of Pacific hurricane records
  • The strongest recorded Pacific hurricane was Hurricane Patricia (2015), with 1-minute maximum sustained winds of 215 mph (345 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 872 mbar (hPa; 25.75 inHg). This ranks Patricia as the strongest tropical cyclone globally in terms of 1-minute sustained winds and the second strongest globally in terms of barometric pressure.[21]
  • Hurricane John (1994) was the farthest-travelling tropical cyclone worldwide, traversing 7,165 mi (13,280 km) in 30 days and 18 hours.[22]
  • The 1959 Mexico hurricane was the deadliest Pacific hurricane, causing 1,800 fatalities mostly in Colima and Jalisco.[23]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Chris Landsea (July 15, 2011). "Subject: A1) What is a hurricane, typhoon, or tropical cyclone?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved July 2, 2012.
  2. ^ a b c Arnold Court (1980). Tropical Cyclone Effects on California. NOAA technical memorandum NWS WR; 159. Northridge, California: California State University. pp. 2, 4, 6, 8, 34. Retrieved February 2, 2012.
  3. ^ Tingley, F. G. (1922). "North Pacific Ocean" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 50 (3). American Meteorological Society: 99. Bibcode:1929MWRv...57..121H. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1929)57<121:NPO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved December 20, 2010.
  4. ^ Hurd, Willis Edwin (April 21, 1929). "Eastern North Pacific tropical cyclones" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 57 (2). American Meteorological Society: 98. Bibcode:1922MWRv...50...98T. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1922)50<98:NPO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved December 21, 2010.
  5. ^ a b Neumann, Charles J; Leftwhich, Preston W (August 1977). Statistical Guidance for the Prediction of Eastern North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Motion — Part I (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS WR-124). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service — Western Region. p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 1, 2013. Retrieved July 27, 2013.
  6. ^ Brown, Gail M; Leftwhich, Preston W; National Hurricane Center (August 1982). A Compilation of Eastern and Central North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Data (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC 16). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 1, 2013. Retrieved July 27, 2013.
  7. ^ a b c d Blake, Eric S; Gibney, Ethan J; Brown, Daniel P; Mainelli, Michelle; Franklin, James L; Kimberlain, Todd B; Hammer, Gregory R (2009). Tropical Cyclones of the Eastern North Pacific Basin, 1949-2006 (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 11, 2024. Retrieved June 14, 2013.
  8. ^ a b Leftwhich, Preston W; Brown, Gail M (February 1981). Eastern North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Occurrences during Intra Seasonal Periods (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS WR-160). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service — Western Region. pp. 2–3. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2013.
  9. ^ a b Davis, Mary A.S.; Brown, Gail M; Leftwhich, Preston W; National Hurricane Center (September 1984). A Tropical Cyclone Data Tape for the Eastern and Central North Pacific Basins, 1949-1983: Contents, Limitations, and Uses (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC 25). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. pp. 2–3. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 19, 2013. Retrieved July 28, 2013.
  10. ^ Sheets, Robert C (June 1990). "The National Hurricane Center — Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). Weather and Forecasting. 5 (2): 197. Bibcode:1990WtFor...5..185S. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1990)005<0185:TNHCPA>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0434.
  11. ^ National Hurricane Center (April 2015). Revisions made to EPAC HURDAT (Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
  12. ^ Landsea, Christopher W; Franklin, James L; Blake, Eric S; Tanabe Raymond (April 2013). The revised Northeast and North Central Pacific hurricane database (HURDAT2) (PDF) (Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 28, 2013. Retrieved July 28, 2013.
  13. ^ "Re-analysis of the 1959 Manzanillo Mexico Hurricane Landfall intensity changed from category 5 to category 4" (PDF) (Press release). United States National Hurricane Center. February 4, 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2016. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
  14. ^ a b Longshore, David (2009). Encyclopedia of Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones, New Edition. Infobase Publishing. p. 333. ISBN 978-1-4381-1879-6.
  15. ^ Dorst, Neal (January 21, 2010). "TCFAQ G1) When is hurricane season?". Hurricane Research Division. United States: Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
  16. ^ Graham, Steve; Riebeek, Holli (November 1, 2006). "Hurricanes: The Greatest Storms on Earth: Feature Articles". Earth Observatory. United States: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on May 6, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2018.
  17. ^ a b "Tropical Cyclone Climatology". FAQ. Central Pacific Hurricane Center. Retrieved December 31, 2007.
  18. ^ "Latest Advisories on Current Tropical Cyclones Hurricanes Typhoons". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
  19. ^ National Hurricane Center. Tropical Cyclone Climatology. Archived December 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on April 19, 2008.
  20. ^ Michael Chenoweth and Chris Landsea. The San Diego Hurricane of 2 October 1858. Retrieved on April 19, 2008.
  21. ^ Todd B. Kimberlain; Eric S. Blake & John P. Cangialosi (February 1, 2016). Hurricane Patricia (PDF) (Report). Tropical Cyclone Report. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
  22. ^ "Tropical Cyclone Records". FAQ. National Hurricane Center & Central Pacific Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on January 4, 2019. Retrieved November 30, 2019.
  23. ^ E. Jáuregui (2003). "Climatology of landfalling hurricanes and tropical storms in Mexico" (PDF). Atmósfera. p. 200. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 1, 2007. Retrieved December 28, 2007.
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