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Zimbabwean diaspora

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The Zimbabwean diaspora refers to the diaspora of immigrants from the nation of Zimbabwe and their descendants who now reside in other countries. The number of Zimbabweans living outside Zimbabwe varies significantly from 4 to 7 million people, though it is generally accepted at over 5 million people, some 30 per cent of all Zimbabweans.[15] Varying degrees of assimilation and a high degree of interethnic marriages in the Zimbabwean diaspora communities makes determining exact figures difficult. The diaspora population is extremely diverse and consists of Shona people, Ndebele, white Zimbabweans, mixed-race people, Asians, Jewish people and other minority groups. The diaspora traces their origin to several waves of emigration, starting with the exodus that followed the 1965, unilateral declaration of independence in Rhodesia, but significantly since the sociopolitical crisis that began in 2000.[16]

Zimbabwean diaspora
Total population
c. 16–22 million worldwide[1]
Regions with significant populations
 Zimbabwe   13,061,239
(2012)[2]
 South Africa1,000,000– 3,000,000[3]
 United Kingdom128,000[4]
 Australia65,000[5]
 Botswana50,000
 United States30,000–50,000 (estimate)[6]
 Canada31,225[7]
 Zambia10,000[8]
 France8,372[9]
 New Zealand5,600[citation needed]
 Ireland5,348[10]
 Germany3,715[11]
 Portugal1,312[12]
 Namibia1,160
 Singapore1,103[13]
 Hong Kong859[14]
Languages
Zimbabwean English • Shona • Ndebele
Religion
Methodism • Roman Catholicism • Anglicanism • Pentecostalism • Judaism.

Countries with the biggest diaspora populations include South Africa, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States.[17] There is mobility within the diaspora. For example, some Zimbabweans have moved to the UK before deciding to settle in Australia.[18]

History

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Historically, Zimbabwe has long been a destination for immigration, rather than a source of immigrants, with large waves of migration occurring from Africa, Europe led by the United Kingdom as well as other minorities notably from British India from the late 19th century onwards. After the discovery of gold at Witwatersrand, temporary labour migration to South Africa increasingly became a feature of Rhodesian and then Zimbabwean society. A 2002 survey by the Southern African Migration Project show that almost 25% of adult Zimbabweans' parents or grandparents had worked in South Africa at some point in their lives.[19]

However, permanent emigration is a relatively new phenomenon. There have been two major waves of emigration from Zimbabwe. The first was that of whites in Zimbabwe who left the country soon after independence; they were followed by black Zimbabweans beginning in the 1990s. In both cases, South Africa was again their primary destination; however, from 1994 onwards, the South African government displayed increasing hostility to skilled immigration from the rest of Africa, leading Zimbabwean emigrants to move to the UK and beyond.[20]

In contrast, wealthier Zimbabweans tend to have an easier route to the UK, with many having family or ancestral ties to the country, while others are able to arrive as skilled professionals, investors or students, making the community wealthier than arrivals from other countries in Africa and more comparable to South African or Australian Britons.[21] Prior to November 2002, Zimbabweans were free to travel to the UK without a visa and this provided them with easy access to the country. Since the UK Government introduced the requirement for Zimbabweans to apply for visas to travel to the UK, increasing numbers of those who can have chosen other countries such as Australia and Canada as attractive destinations. Additionally as the number of Zimbabweans applying for asylum to the UK has fallen, increasing numbers of working class Zimbabweans have sought refuge in South Africa instead, while those in the UK, increasingly skew wealthier.[22]

Overall statistics

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It is estimated that there are millions of residents outside of Zimbabwe's borders who were either born in the country or are descended from immigrants. Permanent emigration is a relatively recent phenomenon having begun in the 1990s but expanded significantly since 2000. Much of the country's middle class has chosen to emigrate due to poor political and economic conditions at home, especially during the political violence that marred the 2000s, essentially foot voting. Zimbabwe's high literacy and skilled immigrants by African standards, has made them highly attractive, for example in the United Kingdom, where many medical professionals have been recruited directly by the NHS.[23] Additionally, a steep decline in funding for once prestigious institutions such as the University of Zimbabwe and the National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe has pushed many students abroad particularly to Australia, Canada and South Africa to complete their university studies. However, refugees and less skilled migrants tend to reside legally or illegally in nearby South Africa, due to the fall of the standard of living and economic conditions in Zimbabwe.[23]

The Zimbabwean diaspora has a 95% literacy rate and a highly skilled adult population. The main languages spoken are English, Shona, and Ndebele.

Context

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In December 2017 the website Zimbabwe News and Gettysburg College, calculated the cost of the Mugabe era using various statistics, noting that at during the 1980s, the country was growing economically at about seven per cent a year, and had done so since independence. If this rate of growth had been maintained for the next 40 years, Zimbabwe would have in 2019 a GDP of US$102 billion making it an upper middle income economy or newly industrialised country.[24] Instead it had a formal sector GDP of only US$24 billion, a loss of tens of billions in lost growth.

The population growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa at about 3.5 per cent per annum, doubling every 21 years thanks to high birth rates, relatively low death rates and modest immigration. Had this growth been maintained, the population would have been 31 million. Instead, as of 2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were believed to be caused widespread emigration as well as premature deaths from political violence, starvation and disease, and partly due to a notable fertility decline. The life expectancy fell during the 2000s, and death from politically motivated violence sponsored by government exceeds 200,000 since 1980. The policies of the Mugabe government have directly or indirectly caused the premature deaths of an estimated three million Zimbabweans in 37 years.[24]

By country

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Australia

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Zimbabwean Australian rugby player, David Pocock
Main article: Zimbabwean Australians

Zimbabweans form a significant community in Australia with their numbers having grown to over 34,787 Zimbabwe-born as of 2018. When including their Australian and foreign born members, the government estimates at least 60,000 people being equally divided between black and white Zimbabweans[25][26] The community is now well established, with some of the highest incomes in the country,[27] as well as with community institutions such as Zimbabwean language schools.[28] One in three of Australia's Shona and Ndebele-speakers live in Sydney with other concentrations of Zimbabweans in Perth, Melbourne and Queensland. Indeed, some 78 per cent of Zimbabwean Aussie adults hold a tertiary degree, making them the best educated group in the country[25][29][30]

Along with their fellow South African immigrants, the Zimbabwean Australian community has become something of an invisible model minority in Australia, in part because they are represented as having a high degree of integration within the Australian society as well as economic and academic success.[23] Furthermore, Zimbabweans in Australia on average have a high level of education attainment, as well as higher than average incomes, which can be partially attributed to Zimbabwe's high education rates as well as the growing popularity of Australian universities as an affordable alternative for foreign students.[23]

Unlike their counterparts from Asia, they have not formed distinct enclaves within the major cities of Australia and the degree of assimilation is higher than most recent migrants to Australia, due to better cultural, historical, and linguistic similarities with Australia. Despite this, the community is still strongly attached to its homeland while being increasing integrated into Australian society, with many travelling back and forth.[23]

Botswana

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Main article: Zimbabweans in Botswana

There are estimated to be between 40,000 and 100,000 Zimbabweans in Botswana as of 2009.[31] Zimbabweans are the most numerous nationality among registered foreign workers in Botswana.[32] More than half of Zimbabwean migrant workers are employed in agricultural and mining occupations, while others work in construction, real estate, finance, retail, education, health and manufacturing. As a result, a disproportionate number of Zimbabweans form part of Botswanas skilled workers, boosting the country's economy at the expense of Zimbabwe itself.[33] Others, especially the more- irregular migrants, are engaged as maids, herders or in cross-border trading.[34]

Canada

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Main article: Zimbabwean Canadians

According to the 2016 census, there were 30,035 Canadians with Zimbabwean background, 15,650 of whom were born in Zimbabwe.[16] Canada became an important destination for Zimbabweans as early as 1965, but especially so since 2000. Being anglophone and relatively well educated, they've readily adapted to Canadian society. The Zimbabwean community in Canada is concentrated in Toronto; Calgary; Edmonton; Southern Ontario, Ottawa, Montreal, Vancouver and Victoria, British Columbia in British Columbia. Their numbers have been slowly but steadily increasing since 2000.[16]

Ireland

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In the Republic of Ireland, there were approximately 5,348 Irish Zimbabweans, third among African countries behind Nigeria and South Africa. A minority of these may have ties to Ireland through family ancestry.[10] Approximately 310 people, gained Irish citizenship between the censuses of 2011 and 2016. Due to proximity and historical ties, there is quite a lot of movement between people settled in Ireland and those in the UK.

New Zealand

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Zimbabwean New Zealanders or Zimbabwean Kiwis are New Zealand citizens who are fully or partially of Zimbabwean descent or Zimbabwe-born people who reside in New Zealand. They include migrants to New Zealand of people from Zimbabwe, as well as their descendants. Today, over 5,614 people in New Zealand have Zimbabwean ancestry in 2016, making them one of the diaspora's smaller communities.[35] New Zealand's Zimbabwean population is the biggest in Auckland. Many Zimbabwean New Zealanders are of White Zimbabwean origin, with a soon to be plurality of Shona people. Zimbabwean Kiwis are overwhelmingly concentrated on the North Island, particularly Wellington, Auckland and Hamilton. They form the second largest African community after South Africans and are predominantly English speaking and well educated, thus integrating well into Kiwi society.[36]

South Africa

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Charlene, Princess of Monaco was born in Zimbabwe and raised there and in South Africa
 
Trevor Ncube, 2017
Main article: Zimbabweans in South Africa

There are estimated to be between eight hundred thousand and three million Zimbabweans in South Africa as of 2018. Migration between the two countries has been a feature throughout the 20th century, traditionally with mostly white South Africans moving north and black Zimbabwean workers temporarily heading south. Beginning in the 1980s, the tide began to turn in favor of South Africa and with large scale emigration a feature since 2000. Today, Zimbabweans in South Africa have faced a tougher time there than in other countries, with many working class and poorer migrants facing xenophobic violence and crime in the country. Additionally, while it is easier to settle in South Africa than in previous years, the government still makes naturalising as a South African citizen very difficult.

Ironically, The Zimbabwean immigrant is the most similar to native South Africans of all major foreign immigrants in the country, and they easily adapt to their new place of residence, due to similarities in environment, culture, lifestyle, language and their relatively higher education levels. Indeed, most immigrants that arrived prior to Zimbabwe's economic crisis in the 2000s, would often assimilate readily in South African society.[16]

Zimbabwean immigration has accompanied the ups and downs suffered by the country in recent decades in terms of political and economic instability.

However, Zimbabweans still face significant challenges in South Africa, with working class and poorer migrants disproportionately suffering from discrimination and xenophobic violence. Indeed, the most vulnerable of migrants tend to suffer from wage exploitation and anti-migrant violence, with female migrants facing the additional risk of rape and sexual exploitation. As a result, many Zimbabweans have soured on South Africa, frustrated with the governments poor handling of crime and xenophobia, as well as its indifference to the plight of Zimbabwe and Zimbabweans. Most educated workers who can afford to, now believe it is better to emigrate to other countries such as the United Kingdom; Australia; Canada; New Zealand and Ireland, which offer greater economic opportunities, less discrimination and crime than remain in South Africa.[16]

Despite this, numerous academics, students, athletes, journalists, artists and professionals stand out within the Zimbabwean community in South Africa.

United Kingdom

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Thandiwe Newton is an English actress of Zimbabwean ancestry
Main article: Zimbabwean migration to the United Kingdom

Zimbabwean Britons are British people of Zimbabwean descent. There are approximately 500,000 Britons of Zimbabwean origin or descent. Most live in the Greater London/South East England, Leicester and Yorkshire.[37] London has the largest population of people of Zimbabwean descent in the United Kingdom. Other notable areas with Zimbabweans include Berkshire, and Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Milton Keynes and Birmingham.[38]

Zimbabwean immigrants and their children tend to adapt quickly to British society due to the long ties between the two countries, their all but identical education systems[39] and high levels of education and English fluency compared to most immigrants to the UK.[40] In addition many Zimbabweans have family or ancestral ties to the UK or have studied and spent time there, making it easier for them to settle in Britain than other immigrants. Indeed, many professionals, particularly those in the medical field, were directly recruited by British employers to the UK, beginning in the 1990s.

Studies have pointed to the higher rate of English use among Zimbabweans, their willingness to marry non-Zimbabweans, and their eagerness to become naturalised citizens as factors that contribute to their rapid assimilation, as well as their interactions with the greater British-born community.[21] In addition, Zimbabwe has historically been a melting pot of many cultures and languages, making assimilating to a multicultural Britain easier. A minority of Zimbabweans on the other hand, particularly those who arrived as asylum seekers or with less resources, tended to struggle upon arriving in the UK and would find themselves overrepresented in high demand but less prestigious sectors such as nursing, elder and childcare.[40]

United States

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Zimbabwean Americans are Americans of Zimbabwean ancestry or birth. The American Community Survey of 2017 estimated the Zimbabwean American population to number 30,000, a figure that notably increased from a decade earlier. Similar to neighbouring South Africa, Zimbabwe was traditionally a destination of immigrants from Europe and Africa beginning in the late 19th century and lasting until the mid to late 20th century. As a result, few Zimbabweans lived in the US prior to the late 1970s, with most preferring South Africa, the UK and Australia instead.[41]

There are various conflicting figures on the exact number of Zimbabweans in the US. The RAND Corporation estimated in 2000 that there were 100,000 in the state of New York alone.[42] In contrast, a 2008 estimate from the Association of Zimbabweans Based Abroad put the population of Zimbabweans in the whole US at just 45,000.[43] They make up just a small part of the Zimbabwean diaspora compared to the larger communities in South Africa and the United Kingdom.[43] Many Zimbabweans who emigrate, particularly those with British, Malawian, Portuguese, Greek, and Mozambiquean ancestry hold or are eligible for dual citizenship, which makes determining their exact numbers difficult.[41] Despite this, the vast majority of Zimbabweans identify both with their nationality and country of origin.

The history of Zimbabwean emigration to the United States is very recent. Before 1980, the few Zimbabweans that left the country migrated to other the United Kingdom or South Africa. The emergence of serious economic and political problems beginning in the 1990s, led to a significant wave of emigration, which included large numbers of well-educated professionals, particularly in the medical field and students who began to seek out the US as an alternative destination.[44]

Most Zimbabweans find it relatively easy to adapt to life in large cities in the United States, thanks to their English usage, cosmopolitan lifestyle and a multicultural society that makes it easier to adapt to American life.[45] In addition, the high value that is given to higher education has led many Zimbabwean students to migrate to the United States to continue their university studies there. Most Zimbabweans established themselves in New York City, the Washington, D.C., area, Southern California and Texas. Other notable centers of the Zimbabwean American population are New Jersey; Greater Philadelphia; the Bay Area; Atlanta; Massachusetts and Indiana. Sharing a similar history, culture and lifestyle, many Zimbabweans and South Africans have formed close bonds in the US and tend to live in similar communities with many forming associations and sharing family ties.[41] Indeed, South Africans and Zimbabweans are among the most skilled and professionally employed immigrants in the US today, with nearly 60 per cent of them holding a bachelor's degree or higher based on a 2005 study. Despite this there are evident economic disparities between long settled citizens and recent arrivals with few ties to North America.[45]

Other locations

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More recently, a small but educated class of Zimbabweans, particularly those in finance, hospitality and international trade have been trending emigration toward such far-flung cities such as Singapore, Hong Kong, Dubai and, to a lesser extent, Japan and, Malaysia.[46] Joining them are a small number of students seeking a cheaper alternative to Western universities as well as corrupt ZANU-PF officials with properties in the region.[47] Few have plans to settle long term and lead a privileged lifestyle that resembles that of western expats more than other it does migrants. The nation continues to experience high emigration and a significant disparity in income between wealthier emigrants concentrated in the West and stretched or struggling Zimbabweans at home or in South Africa.[48]

 
Asian cities such as Singapore have become increasingly popular destinations with the ruling government elite, who own several properties in the region, as part of Zimbabwe's Look East economic policy and as a means of avoiding targeted EU sanctions

Investment networks and economic impact

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Paul Maritz, is an active philanthropist and investor in projects in developing countries.

Many people of Zimbabwean descent have proved very successful, across various sectors and contexts, particularly those in Great Britain; South Africa; Australia; Canada and the United States, producing businesspeople such as Strive Masiyiwa; Paul Maritz; Trevor Ncube and Sir John Collins amongst others.[49] The Zimbabwean government has attempted to use this to its advantage setting up the Homelink remittance network and attempting to encourage investment by non-resident entrepreneurs. However, the intense and near universal opposition towards the ZANU-PF government by members of the diaspora doomed Homelink to failure, as Zimbabweans abroad used unofficial channels to send money to family members within the country or invested in secure assets such as real estate or the stock market, dampening hopes of securing vital foreign exchange.

Many Zimbabweans accuse the current government of widescale corruption, nepotism and ineptitude, evidenced by the looting of the Marange diamond fields, which has led to near economic collapse, high unemployment and for unleashing violence against the opposition.[50] Still, remittances make up to some 12 per cent of GDP an estimated at $4.9 billion in 2019.[50] However, there remains a great untapped potential for further collaboration and cooperation between the diaspora and stakeholders in their home-country. Foreign direct investment remains low by international standards, with most expatriates strongly opposed to engaging with the current ZANU-PF government.

The Zimbabwean diaspora has used its identity to create strong networks to help its members out. That helped develop productive and profitable networks in Southern Africa and most major English-speaking countries.[49] Those in South Africa in particular, have been successful at increasing trade between the two countries, setting up vital import-export enterprises, that provide Zimbabwe with vital goods it no longer produces. Zimbabwean expatriates play an important role in assisting Zimbabwe and its people through financial support, family and travel visits, businesses and trade, any recovery in the economy of Zimbabwe will almost certainly require their input and assistance, it remains to be seen whether the government can enact the reforms necessary to achieve this.[49]

Outreach by the Zimbabwean government

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With 4 to 7 million people abroad, the Zimbabwean government increasingly sees the diaspora as a critical resource for investment, foreign exchange and remittances. Many Zimbabwean communities particularly those in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, have become among the most successful communities in their respective countries, with many moving into the middle and upper middle class. Many are now highly integrated and increasingly into their second generation in their respective countries(only South Africa has any notable movement between its diaspora and Zimbabwe itself).[51] Indeed, 16 per cent of those in the UK are ranked as high income earners, well over the national average of 6.5 per cent. Government officials such as Gideon Gono and Mthuli Ncube have sought to entice Zimbabweans abroad to invest and improve the standard of living.[52]

 
UK Labour peer Lord Peter Hain has long been outspoken on Zimbabwe and previously on friendly terms with Robert Mugabe

The Zimbabwean government launched several programmes to better connect those abroad to Zimbabwe itself, with an objective of improving foreign investment.[53] However, many Zimbabweans abroad, have criticised the government for its high tax rates and anti-competitive policies which have made the costs and ease of doing business difficult, as well as long standing corruption by the ruling party. Partial reforms in the hospitality sector, led to a boom in investment and construction focused on the Victoria Falls region from 2018, joining the decade long real estate boom focused on the Northern suburbs of Harare, however this has all but subsided, due to the economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.[54]

In 2014, The government amended the constitution to allow for dual-citizenship during the government of national unity. Given the crisis in Zimbabwe has been going on for nearly two decades, most Zimbabweans in other countries, especially in major English-speaking countries now hold other citizenships. The move was made to encourage links to Zimbabwe, as well as ease travel.

However, a major stumbling block to these initiatives, is the diasporas intense opposition and hostility towards the ZANU PF party. Indeed, Zimbabwean embassies abroad have long been the scene of anti-government protest, with Zimbabwean Britons in particular becoming a very influential lobby group within the country, lobbying the British Labour Party, Liberal Democrats and the UK Conservatives, to withhold any support for the current Mnagagwa government, press for democratic reform and respect for the rule of law, while vigorously supporting the opposition, MDC party. Zimbabweans abroad are overwhelmingly hostile to the present government, and most financial support is largely family or charity-based.[53]

Zimbabweans of the diaspora

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Coldplay singer, Chris Martin during a concert
 
Rugby World cup winner, Tendai Mtawarira
 
singer, Tinashe in London
 
George Gregan
 
Kevin Parker

Notable people of the diaspora (including those of Zimbabwean ancestry):

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

P

R

S

V

W

Z

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "The Engagement of the Zimbabwean Medical Diaspora" (PDF). Southern African Migration Programme.
  2. ^ "Census 2012 national report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2020.
  3. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  4. ^ "Table 1.3: Overseas-born population in the United Kingdom, excluding some residents in communal establishments, by sex, by country of birth, January 2019 to December 2019". Office for National Statistics. 21 May 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2020. Figure given is the central estimate. See the source for 95% confidence intervals.
  5. ^ "ABS Ancestry". Abs.gov.au. 2012.
  6. ^ "Explore Census Data". data.census.gov.
  7. ^ "Census Profile, 2016 Census". 8 February 2017.
  8. ^ "Rising levels of resentment towards Zimbabweans". 9 June 2008.
  9. ^ "Population par sexe, âge et nationalité en 2018". insee.fr. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
  10. ^ a b Irish census data
  11. ^ "Foreigners in Germany by origin 2021". Statista.
  12. ^ "Zimbabwe-Emigrantes totales".
  13. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 2 September 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  14. ^ Shen, Simon (15 December 2017). "Hong Kong's ties with Zimbabwe: The past and the present". EJ Insight.
  15. ^ Dinner with Mugabe: The untold story of a freedom fighter who became a tyrant. Penguin Random House South Africa. 24 September 2012. ISBN 9780143027416.
  16. ^ a b c d e Chikanda, Abel; Crush, Jonathan (2018). "Global Zimbabweans: Diaspora Engagement and Disengagement". Journal of International Migration and Integration. 19 (4): 1037–1057. doi:10.1007/s12134-018-0582-0. S2CID 159012899.
  17. ^ "Zimbabwe: Diaspora remittances in decline". The Africa Report.com. The Africa Report. 4 February 2014.
  18. ^ "Zimbabwe: First Family Has Low Opinion of the People". AllAfrica.
  19. ^ Tevera & Zinyama 2002, p. 2
  20. ^ Tevera & Zinyama 2002, p. 3
  21. ^ a b Zembe, Christopher Roy (2018). "Zimbabwe's Minority Communities in Britain Reliving Colonial and Post-colonial Memories". Zimbabwean Communities in Britain. pp. 127–150. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89683-0_5. ISBN 978-3-319-89682-3.
  22. ^ Cooley, Laurence; Rutter, Jill (2007). "Turned away? Towards better protection for refugees fleeing violent conflict". Public Policy Research. 14 (3): 176–180. doi:10.1111/j.1744-540X.2007.00485.x.
  23. ^ a b c d e "SOUTHERN AFRICAN MIGRATION PROGRAMME - ZIMBABWE'S EXODUS TO AUSTRALIA" (PDF). Retrieved 22 August 2023.
  24. ^ a b "The Economic Decline of Zimbabwe". Retrieved 22 August 2023.
  25. ^ a b "Zimbabwe-born Community Information Summary" (PDF). Retrieved 22 August 2023.
  26. ^ "Community Information Summary Zimbabwe-born" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2023.
  27. ^ "Irish among Australia's best paid workers". Irish Echo. [permanent dead link‍]
  28. ^ "Learning parents' language helps keep culture alive". SBS.
  29. ^ "Redirect to Census data page".
  30. ^ "Redirect to Census data page". Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
  31. ^ Betts & Kaytaz 2009, p. 17
  32. ^ "Number of foreign workers go up", Mmegi, 5 May 2009, retrieved 26 August 2009
  33. ^ "Most Zimbabweans in Botswana herding cattle", Nehanda Radio, 27 January 2009, retrieved 25 August 2009 [permanent dead link‍]
  34. ^ Betts & Kaytaz 2009, p. 19
  35. ^ "Zimbabwean New Zealanders". Statistics New Zealand.
  36. ^ "Zimbabwe's loss has been New Zealand's gain". 14 September 2019.
  37. ^ Makoni, Sinfree B.; Dube, Busi; Mashiri, Pedzisai (2006). "Zimbabwe Colonial and Post-Colonial Language Policy and Planning Practices". Current Issues in Language Planning. 7 (4): 377–414. doi:10.2167/cilp108.0. S2CID 144520269.
  38. ^ Zembe, Christopher Roy (2018). Zimbabwean Communities in Britain. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89683-0. ISBN 978-3-319-89682-3.
  39. ^ "Zimbabwe has the highest Cambridge exam entries in Africa, 10th globally". 5 March 2020.
  40. ^ a b "Regendering the Zimbabwean diaspora in Britain". Zimbabwe's exodus : Crisis migration survival. African Books Collective. June 2010. pp. 207–224. ISBN 9781920409227.
  41. ^ a b c Chikanda, Abel (2011). The Engagement of The Zimbabwean medical diaspora (PDF). Cape Town: Southern African Migration Programme (SAMP). ISBN 978-1-920409-64-7.
  42. ^ Firger, Jessica (13 May 2008), "The Heartbeat of Africa in New York", New York Daily News, archived from the original on 13 May 2008, retrieved 18 April 2009
  43. ^ a b "Returning will take more than politics", IRIN News, 3 April 2008, retrieved 18 April 2009
  44. ^ Noyes, Alexander H. (2020). "A New Zimbabwe? Assessing Continuity and Change After Mugabe" (PDF). RAND Corp.
  45. ^ a b Ueda, Reed (2009). The New Americans: A Guide to Immigration Since 1965. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674044937.
  46. ^ "Hong Kong's ties with Zimbabwe: The past and the present". Archived from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2023.
  47. ^ Chinaka, Cris (10 April 2012). "Zimbabwe's Mugabe "well, on holiday" – officials". Reuters World News.
  48. ^ "Outputs of Diaspora Engagement for Development | SAMP – Southern African Migration Programme". 20 November 2017.
  49. ^ a b c "Zimbabwe Jan-Sept diaspora remittances up 45% y/y due to lockdowns". Reuters. 19 November 2020 – via www.reuters.com.
  50. ^ a b "Personal remittances, received (% of GDP) – Zimbabwe | Data".
  51. ^ The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora. IOM Migration Research Series. 2005. doi:10.18356/62042291-en. ISBN 9789213630099.
  52. ^ "Big fail for ad aimed at Lebanese diaspora". The National. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
  53. ^ a b Zimbabwe's New Diaspora. Berghahn Books. 2010. ISBN 9781845456580. JSTOR j.ctt9qdfz9.
  54. ^ "UK drives tourist boom in Victoria Falls - VictoriaFalls24".

Bibliography

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