Wikipedia

Water pollution in Canada

Water pollution in Canada is generally local and regional in water-rich Canada, and most Canadians have "access to sufficient, affordable, and safe drinking water and adequate sanitation."[1] Water pollution in Canada is caused by municipal sewage, urban runoff, industrial pollution and industrial waste, agricultural pollution, inadequate water infrastructure. This is a long-term threat in Canada due to "population growth, economic development, climate change, and scarce fresh water supplies in certain parts of the country."[2]

Acidic lake waste water at Northland Mine in Temagami, Ontario

Overview

edit

While most Canadians have access to clean water, locally and regionally there are cases of "public beach closures, contaminated sediments, algal blooms, aquatic weed infestations, fish kills, shellfish harvesting closures, boil-water advisories, outbreaks of waterborne illnesses, and contaminated ground water", according to a 1998 report from British Columbia.[3]

Water pollution is caused by municipal sewage, urban runoff, industrial pollution and industrial waste, agricultural pollution, inadequate water infrastructure.[4]

Surface water pollution

edit

There are two major types of water pollution in Canada, surface water pollution and ground water pollution.

Ground water pollution

edit
 
Water way polluted with different types of waste

Groundwater contaminants point sources include municipal landfill sites, industrial waste disposal sites, "leaking gasoline storage tanks, leaking septic tanks, and accidental spills". Distributed, or non-point sources include "infiltration from farm land treated with pesticides and fertilizers".[5] Ground water pollution affects water supplies as the contaminants eventually reach rivers, lakes and oceans.[5]

Sources

edit

Sources of water pollution include point sources, nonpoint sources, and trans-boundary sources.

Point sources

edit

In Canada, there are many monitoring programs in place to trace and regulate point source pollution, where pollutants can be traced to a "single identifiable source".[6] By 1998, BC for example, reported that most "end of-pipe" point discharges from industrial and municipal outfalls" were generally regulated and controlled.[3]

Nonpoint source pollution

edit
Main article: Nonpoint source pollution

Nonpoint source pollution (NPS) cannot be easily traced to one source, making them more difficult to regulate.[6] They are released gradually into the water system from many different sources.[3] NPS accounts for a "substantial amount of water pollution in Canada", the problem has not been addressed as vigorously as point-source emissions (pollution from a single identifiable source).[6]

NPS pollutants from largely unregulated sources, include land development and agriculture.[3] By 1998, British Columbia reported that NPS was the major "cause of water pollution in that province by 1998 and that these pollutants "pose significant and growing threats" to water resources.[3]

The main types of NPS are sediment, nutrients, toxic contaminants and chemicals, and pathogens.

The major sources of NSP are urban and highway run off, the agricultural, forestry, and mining industries, marinas and boating activities. Fertilizer runoff, and agricultural waste water are examples of NSP in the agricultural industry. In urban areas, stormwater is an NSP, as is surface runoff on highways.

Popular beaches on the coast of New Brunswick, such as Parlee Beach, and Murray Beach Provincial Park have been contaminated by upstream sources, which may include "municipal sewage, or runoff from farms or forest clearcuts."[7] The province initiated new water quality testing protocols for eight provincial parks including Parlee Beach, Murray Beach, Mactaquac Provincial Park, New River Beach, Mount Carleton, Oak Bay, New Brunswick, Miscou, and Val-Comeau because of "their popularity and because some of them had problems in the past".[7]

Trans-boundary sources

edit

Transboundary pollution is water pollution that originates in one region or country but threatens water quality in another jurisdiction. An example is the contamination of the Columbia River by Teck Resources in Trail, British Columbia that contaminated the river downstream in the American State of Washington.

The American Chemical Society reported in July 2020, that new forms of Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFOAs) were detected in the Arctic Ocean. They reported "higher levels of PFAS" in the "water exiting the Arctic Ocean compared with the water entering the Arctic from the North Atlantic".[8] These are considered to be "forever chemicals"[9] because of their "persistence, toxicity, and widespread occurrence in the blood of general populations."[10][11] PFASs are not manufactured in Canada and importing, selling, or using of PFOS or PFOS-containing products has been banned with some exceptions, since 2008.[12]

Causes

edit

Municipal sewage

edit

According to Marq de Villiers in his 2003 non-fiction Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource, until the 1970s approximately a third of Canadian municipalities dumped raw sewage into rivers with no waste-water treatment.[13]: 305 [14][15] By 2011, there was no national regulatory body for drinking water.[16] Water pollution by sewage is one of the main culprits involved in polluting drinking water.[17] By 2009, advocacy group Ecojustice estimated that raw sewage dumping in Canada represented approximately 200 billion litres a year.[18] By 2009, the Halifax Regional Municipality in Nova Scotia was still dumping human waste directly into the Halifax harbour.[18] Errors and inadequacies in sewage facilities resulted in 190 million liter raw sewage spill into the Ottawa River in 2004,[19] and the release of "partially treated sewage water into the Red River in Winnipeg, Manitoba in 2011.[20]

In October 2015, Montreal intentionally dumped eight billion litres of raw sewage from an same interceptor sewer in the St. Lawrence River, the city made international headlines.[21] It had been a common practice to dump sewage into the St. Lawrence prior to the 1980s.[21] Montreal dumped 10 billion litres of wastewater into St. Lawrence in the spring of 2003, 7.6 billion litres in the fall of 2003, and 770 million litres of untreated wastewater in the fall of 2005.[21] Heavy rains in Toronto has an older sewer systems that is overwhelmed often by heavy rains. The City is then forced to "bypass water-treatment plants and send raw sewage into Lake Ontario.[21] In July 2013, a flash flood resulted in a billion litres of sewage and storm water overflowed onto city streets flowing into Toronto's harbour.[21]

Halifax, Nova Scotia dumped raw sewage into the harbour prior to the construction of their new construction of their new wastewater treatment plant in 2008. There was some sewage discharged "unknowingly, when sewer lines were cut during construction".[21]

Winnipeg, Manitoba dumped approximately 185-million litres of raw sewage into "Winnipeg's rivers since 2004 due to the city's antiquated combined-sewer system".[21] The required massive upgrades to Winnipeg's sewage system would cost $4 billion.[21]

 
Sewage water polluting the environment

Since 1894, Victoria, British Columbia began dumping raw sewage into waters that flow towards Puget Sound, United States.[21] By 2015, the Victoria and Esquimalt region in British Columbia were dumping approximately 130-million litres of raw sewage every day into the Juan de Fuca Strait, which leads to the Pacific Ocean.[21] This practice ended by January 2021, with the completion of a new $775 million sewage McLoughlin Point Wastewater Treatment Plant in Esquimalt that can treat the "equivalent of 43 Olympic-sized pools of waste daily".[22]

Urban runoff

edit

Canada has been studying the sources of urban runoff—stormwater and snowmelt—pollution for decades because it "contributes significantly to the deterioration of surface water quality in many locations".[23] The major pollution source in urban runoff is from the "vehicular transportation-related activities and metallic building envelopes."[23] By 1986, the federal Department of Environment had initiated a research program to identify, identify, and trace toxins to their sources, particularly in relation to urban runoff.[24]

CBC's French-language service Radio-Canada reported that after heavy rainfall, Montreal's raw sewage mixes with rainwater and is allowed to flow directly into the St. Lawrence River and the Rivière des Prairies.[25] Surfers in the area have gotten ill because of the polluted waters, which in some places, has coliform bacteria levels "20 times higher than the acceptable levels for swimming."[25]

Industrial pollution and industrial waste

edit

Agricultural pollution

edit

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada reported in 2014 that the agricultural sector contributes to water pollution through "surface runoff of pesticides, fertilizers and manure, or leaching of nitrogen into groundwater" which eventually is discharged into surface water bodies. These dissolved contaminants from agricultural activities enter into lakes, rivers or oceans.[26]

According to a 4 August 2010 Drumheller Mail article, tests undertaken by University of Calgary researchers found an anabolic steroid, Zeranol—which is an estrogen-like compound—in samples taken in 2006 from the Tolman Bridge and Morrin Bridge on the Red Deer River, Alberta.[27] The Zeranol "could be affecting the fish gender". The researchers said that this "contaminant comes from farms' cattle because it is not used in human medicine and therefore is not likely to come from municipal sewage treatment plant, the other possible source of contamination".[28][27] According to a 2020 article in the journal Ambio, researchers have focused on the presence of "analytics compounds such as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) or pharmaceuticals" in our water systems.[29]

Inadequate water infrastructure

edit

Long-term Drinking Water Advisories (DWA)s

edit
Main article: Long-term Drinking Water Advisories (DWA)s (Canada)

First Nations communities in Canada have been under Long-term Drinking Water Advisories (DWA)s for decades, according to a June 7, 2016 report, Human Rights Watch (HRW) report. The report noted that most Canadians in water-rich Canada—one of the world's wealthiest nations—have "access to sufficient, affordable, and safe drinking water and adequate sanitation." In many First Nations communities, the water is "contaminated, hard to access, or at risk due to faulty treatment systems".[1] The report noted that many of the DWAs had been in effect "for years, sometimes for decades".[1]: 4  Successive federal governments have studied the issue since 1977, but failed to find a solution. The limited water and sanitation infrastructure in First Nations communities, "contributes to the severe housing shortage on reserves", resulting in "long waiting lists for housing, and overcrowding".[1]: 13  Until the infrastructure is upgraded, "communities cannot increase their housing."[1]: 13  From 1996 to 2015 the federal government's arbitrary cap on the base budget of the federal department that funds and regulates water and sanitation infrastructure on reserves that exacerbated the problem.[1]: 13  From 2015 to 2021 with increased federal funding 103 DWAs were lifted. By March 25, 56 advisories remained but of these over half have already begun construction of water infrastructure and in a third of the cases, the lifting of the advisory is pending.[30]

Notable water pollution incidents

edit

One of the "worst cases of environmental poisoning in Canadian history", according to The Lancet, occurred in northwest Ontario when a pulp and paper operation owned by the British conglomeration, Reed Paper Group, discharged about 10,000 kilograms (22,000 lb) of mercury from their chloralkali plant in Dryden into the Wabigoon River between 1962 and 1970.[31] The mercury contamination of the Wabagoon River system was extensive.[32]: e141  The mercury discharge contaminated waterways in the neighbouring province of Saskatchewan, which resulted in a lawsuit against Reed Paper—Interprovincial Cooperatives Ltd v R. The Wabigoon River was "still highly contaminated" in 2016.[33]

In 1997, the Yamaska River was one of the most polluted rivers in the province of Quebec—mainly because of agricultural waste and pesticides.[34] Human activities, including environmental disturbances in the Yamaska River basin, caused a deterioration in the quality of both surface and groundwater.[34] Three other polluted rivers also flow into the St. Lawrence River—Boyer River, Chaudière River, and L'Assomption River. The federal and provincial governments established the Saint-Laurent Action Plan 1990-1994 and the Saint-Laurent Vision 2000, 1994 -1998 to conserve and protect the river. One of the goals of the agreement was to "prevent and reduce the effects of agricultural pollution on four rivers—Yamaska River, Boyer River, Chaudière River, and L'Assomption River—that flow into the St. Lawrence".[34] According to the non-profit organization, the Quebec-based Rivers Foundation, there were 651 sewage spills in the Yamaska River in 2015.[35] On June 28, 2016, the City of Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec dumped approximately 8,000 tonnes of raw sewage into the Yamaska River allegedly causing the deaths of thousands of fish.[35]

The "most serious case of water contamination in Canadian history" was the "fatal E. coli outbreak in Walkerton, Ontario in May 2000.[36] In his 2002 Walkerton judicial inquiry report, Justice Dennis O'Connor's said it "could have been prevented by proper chlorination of drinking water."[37][36] O'Connor said that other contributing factors included deregulation of water testing and cuts to environmental programs by the Ontario government at that time under then Ontario premier, Mike Harris. Harris served from 1995 through 2002 whose program based on his "Common Sense Revolution" included privatization of water testing, deregulation and cuts to provincial services.[36] During his time as premier the budget of the Ontario Department of the Environment was cut by 42% resulting in the layoffs of over 2000 staff members, including those involved in research, monitoring, enforcement, testing, and inspection. Water testing was privatized.[38][37]

In May 2000, in the Walkerton E. coli outbreak, six people died and 2000 had gastroenteritis because of inadequate water treatment.[13][39][40][41] In the May 2000 Walkerton E. coli outbreak six people died and 2000 had gastroenteritis because of inadequate water treatment.[13][42][40][41]

In the 2000s, concerns were raised that the Athabasca oil sands were causing water contamination in the Athabasca River watershed, in regards to acid rain,[43] and the presence of arsenic, lead and mercury in higher levels than those recommended in Canada's national guidelines in water downstream from Albertan oil sites.[44][45][46][47] Acid rain is rain that has been contaminated by airborne chemicals, making it acidic.[48] Two major causes of acid rain are sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide.[49][50][51] The Athabasca River has been contaminated with oil and tailing pond water since the beginning of oil sands development through a series of leaks. In 2007 Suncor spilled 9.8 million liters of oil sands waste water into the Athabaska river.[46] The oil sands tailings ponds are in close proximity to the river drastically which increases the likelihood of contamination due to ground water leakages. It was revealed in 1997 that Suncor's tailing ponds had been leaking 1,600 cubic metres (57,000 cu ft) of toxic water into the Athabaska a day. The Athabasca River is the largest freshwater delta in the world but concerns are raised about Suncor and Syncrude's leaking tail ponds.[52] A 2010, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America article said that arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, nickel and other toxic metal elements enter the tributaries and rivers of the Athabasca from oil sands development.[53]

Pollution of the Great Lakes—Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario—the largest system of fresh surface water in the world—accounting for about 18% of the fresh surface water globally, has been severely affected by water pollution.[54] The high levels of phosphorus in the lakes, which leads to eutrophication and the growth of algae and eventually hypoxia—oxygen depletion.[55][56] Lake Erie was pronounced "dead" in the 1970s. From the 1970s to the 1990s, the province of Ontario worked to restore the Lakes by "cleaning up several highly polluted harbours, bays and waterfronts" and "dramatically reducing many toxic chemicals that were harming fish and wildlife."[57] Phosphate detergents were banned, sewage treatments were upgraded, more environmentally-friendly agricultural practices were adopted to "reduce nutrients entering the lake".[57][58] In September 2012, the United States and Canada signed amended version of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement.[59] The overarching purpose of the Agreement is to "restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the waters".[59] Significant amendments made to the Agreement include "address[ing] aquatic invasive species, habitat degradation and the effects of climate change, and support continued work on existing threats to people's health and the environment in the Great Lakes Basin such as harmful algae, toxic chemicals, and discharges from other vessels".[59][60]

The 1970 Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act set new guidelines to prevent pollution of Canadian Arctic waters. By 2008, Fisheries and Oceans reported that some Arctic waters have levels of lead that are higher than the Canadian guidelines.[61] Pollution of the Arctic Ocean doubled from 2002 to 2012.[62]

In 2006, Lake Winnipeg's algae blooms was considered to be the worst algae problem of any large freshwater lake in the world, according to Canadian Geographic.[63] In 2011, the Province of Manitoba released a report by the University of Regina's Canada Research Chair in Environmental Change and Society.[64] which described the "sudden ecosystem state change in Lake Winnipeg" that was "caused by eutrophication."[64]

Irving Pulp and Paper, a private company owned by J. D. Irving,[65] was charged with 15 counts under the Fisheries Act after its Reversing Falls pulp and paper mill in west Saint John, New Brunswick discharged a harmful effluent in ten instances into the St. John River between June 2014 and August 2016.[66] The penalty was set at CA$3.5M—"one of the largest penalties for depositing of deleterious substances.[66] In a New Brunswick provincial court, Irving pleaded guilty in October 2018, to three of the fifteen charges and "agreed to pay $3.5 million in penalties as part of an agreed statement of facts and joint recommendation". The Crown prosecutor Paul Adams said that volume and toxicity of the effluent were "very significant".[66] In response, in October 2018, Irving lawyers challenged the constitutionality of the Fisheries Act.[67] The Saint John mill was previously convicted of violating the Fisheries Act in 1999, 2009 and 2010 with penalties ranging between $37,000 and $75,000.[66]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b c d e f Make it Safe: Canada's Obligation to End the First Nations Water Crisis (PDF). Human Rights Watch (HRW) (Report). 7 June 2016. p. 96. ISBN 978-1-6231-33634.
  2. ^ Government of Canada, Office of the Auditor General of Canada (7 December 2010). "Chapter 2—Monitoring Water Resources". Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  3. ^ a b c d e Tackling non-point source water pollution in British Columbia: an action plan (PDF). Victoria: British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 1998. ISBN 978-0-7726-3666-9.
  4. ^ "Water pollution: causes and effects". Government of Canada. Environment and Climate Change. 30 November 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  5. ^ a b "Groundwater contamination". Government of Canada. Environment and Climate Change. 9 June 2017 [9 January 2007]. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  6. ^ a b c Rahman, Adib J. (2014). "Water Pollution Control Policy: Addressing Non-Point Source Pollution". Inquiries Journal. 6 (3). Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  7. ^ a b MacKinnon, Bobbi-Jean (18 May 2018). "Water quality testing protocol expanded to 8 provincial park beaches". CBC News. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  8. ^ "Newer PFAS contaminant detected for first time in Arctic seawater". ScienceDaily via American Chemical Society. 29 July 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  9. ^ "Opinion | These toxic chemicals are everywhere — even in your body. And they won't ever go away". Washington Post. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  10. ^ Calafat AM, Wong LY, Kuklenyik Z, Reidy JA, Needham LL (November 2007). "Polyfluoroalkyl chemicals in the U.S. population: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2004 and comparisons with NHANES 1999-2000". Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 (11): 1596–602. doi:10.1289/ehp.10598. PMC 2072821. PMID 18007991.
  11. ^ Wang Z, Cousins IT, Berger U, Hungerbühler K, Scheringer M (2016). "Comparative assessment of the environmental hazards of and exposure to perfluoroalkyl phosphonic and phosphinic acids (PFPAs and PFPiAs): Current knowledge, gaps, challenges and research needs". Environment International. 89–90: 235–47. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2016.01.023. PMID 26922149.
  12. ^ O'Keeffe, Juliette. "Keeping Drinking Water Safe: New Guidelines for PFAS in Canada". National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health. National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health. Retrieved 22 July 2020.
  13. ^ a b c de Villiers, Marq (2003) [1999]. Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-77102641-2. OCLC 43365804. Governor General's Award (1999)
  14. ^ "Harper Government Moves to Protect Canada's Water Quality". Environment Canada. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
  15. ^ "What is the Purpose of Drinking Water Quality Guidelines/Regulations?" (PDF). Safe Drinking Water Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  16. ^ "What is the Purpose of Drinking Water Quality Guidelines/Regulations?" (PDF). Safe Drinking Water Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  17. ^ Nakate, Shashank. "Sewage Water Pollution". Archived from the original on 6 July 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  18. ^ a b MacQueen, Ken (30 April 2009). "Many cities still dump raw sewage". Maclean's. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
  19. ^ Rennie, Steve (13 June 2010). "Millions of litres of pollutants dumped in cities: analysis". The Star. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
  20. ^ Owen, Bruce; Bartley Kives (25 October 2012). "City charged for putting partially treated sewage into Red River in 2011". Winnipeg Free Press. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Montreal's sewage dump saga explained". CBC. 8 October 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  22. ^ Meissner, Dirk (9 January 2021). "Victoria no longer flushes raw sewage into ocean after area opens treatment plant". Canadian Press via CTV News. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  23. ^ a b Müller, Alexandra; Österlund, Heléne; Marsalek, Jiri; Viklander, Maria (20 March 2020). "The pollution conveyed by urban runoff: A review of sources". Science of the Total Environment. 709: 136125. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.709m6125M. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136125. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 31905584.
  24. ^ Marsalek, Jiri (1986). "Toxic Contaminants in Urban Runoff: A Case Study". In Harry C. Torno; Jiri Marsalek; Michel Desbordes (eds.). Urban Runoff Pollution. NATO ASI Series. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 39–57. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-70889-3_2. ISBN 978-3-642-70889-3.
  25. ^ a b "Montreal sewage waste dumped directly into rivers". CBC. 25 August 2014. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  26. ^ "Agriculture and water quality" (resource list). Government of Canada. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. 18 July 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  27. ^ a b Jeffries, Ken M.; Jackson, Leland J.; Ikonomou, Michael G.; Habibi, Hamid R. (2010). "Presence of natural and anthropogenic organic contaminants and potential fish health impacts along two river gradients in Alberta, Canada". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 29 (10): 2379–2387. doi:10.1002/etc.265. ISSN 1552-8618. PMID 20872703.
  28. ^ "Contamination in Red Deer River causing fish gender bending". The Drumheller Mail. Drumheller, Alberta. 4 August 2010. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  29. ^ Rogowska, Justyna; Cieszynska-Semenowicz, Monika; Ratajczyk, Wojciech; Wolska, Lidia (1 February 2020). "Micropollutants in treated wastewater". Ambio. 49 (2): 487–503. doi:10.1007/s13280-019-01219-5. ISSN 1654-7209. PMC 6965340. PMID 31292910.
  30. ^ "Ending long-term drinking water advisories" (interactive resource; notice; promotional material; search interface). Indigenous and Northern Affairs. 27 September 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  31. ^ Armstrong, F. A. J.; Hamilton, A. L. (1973). "Pathways of mercury in a polluted Northwestern Ontario Lake. Trace metals and metal-organic interaction in natural waters". Ann Arbor Science Publ.: 131–156.
  32. ^ Philibert, Aline; Fillion, Myriam; Mergler, Donna (1 April 2020). "Mercury exposure and premature mortality in the Grassy Narrows First Nation community: a retrospective longitudinal study". The Lancet Planetary Health. 4 (4): –141–e148. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30057-7. ISSN 2542-5196. PMID 32353294.
  33. ^ "Grassy Narrows must be cleaned up now: Chief Fobister". Star. 6 June 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  34. ^ a b c Bassin versant de la rivière Yamaska – Modifier nos pratiques agricoles... la priorité. l'Environnement et des Parcs Québec (Report). Développement durable. 1997. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  35. ^ a b Smith, Stephen (5 July 2016). "Quebec investigates Saint-Hyacinthe sewage dump after thousands of fish die". CBC. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  36. ^ a b c "Highlights of the Walkerton inquiry report". CBC. 10 May 2010. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  37. ^ a b Dennis O'Connor. The Walkerton Inquiry (Report). Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  38. ^ "Ontario's water system was in disarray after privatization, inquiry hears". CBC. 18 April 2001. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  39. ^ "The investigative report of the Walkerton outbreak of waterborne gastroenteritis" (PDF). Bruce-Grey-Owen-Sound Health Unit. 10 October 2000. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  40. ^ a b O'Connor, Dennis R. (18 January 2002). "Part I: A Summary". Report of the Walkerton Inquiry: The Events of May 2000 and Related Issues. Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  41. ^ a b O'Connor, Dennis R. (23 May 2002). "Part II: A Strategy for Safe Drinking Water". Report of the Walkerton Inquiry: The Events of May 2000 and Related Issues. Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  42. ^ "The investigative report of the Walkerton outbreak of waterborne gastroenteritis" (PDF). Bruce-Grey-Owen-Sound Health Unit. 10 October 2000. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  43. ^ Jeziorski, A.; Yan, N. D.; Paterson, A. M.; Desellas, A. M.; Turner, M. A.; Jeffries, D. S.; Keller, B.; Weeber, R. C.; McNicol, D. K.; Palmer, M. E.; McIver, K.; Arseneau, K.; Ginn, B. K.; Cumming, B. F.; Smol, J. P. (28 November 2008). "The Widespread Threat of Calcium Decline in Fresh Waters". Science. 322 (5906): 1374–1377. Bibcode:2008Sci...322.1374J. doi:10.1126/science.1164949. PMID 19039134. S2CID 24907037. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  44. ^ "Canada tar sands industry ignoring toxic river pollution". The Ecologist. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  45. ^ "Canada leaves out rise in oil sands pollution from UN report". The National Post. 30 May 2011. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  46. ^ a b Timoney, Kevin; Peter Lee (2009). "Does the Alberta Tar Sands Industry Pollute? The Scientific Evidence". The Open Conservation Biology Journal. 3: 65–81. doi:10.2174/1874839200903010065. mirror
  47. ^ "Oilsands to exceed Alberta's new pollution limits, say documents". CBC. The Canadian Press. 11 September 2012.
  48. ^ "Acid Rain". Environment Canada. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
  49. ^ Briney, Amanda. "Causes, History and Effects of Acid Rain". About. Retrieved 5 November 2012.
  50. ^ Prebble, Peter. "Elevated Levels of Toxins Found Downstream of Oil Sands Operations". Saskatchewan Environmental Society. Archived from the original on 13 January 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
  51. ^ Hume, Mark (23 August 2012). "Fearing water pollution, NWT towns call for oil sands slowdown". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
  52. ^ L.T Waller (2008). "We can no longer be sacrificed". Political Science. Briarpatch Inc.
  53. ^ Erin N. Kelly; David W. Schindler; Peter V. Hodson; Jeffrey W. Short; Roseanna Radmanovich; Charlene C. Nielsen (2010). "Oil sands development contributes elements toxic at low concentrations to the Athabasca River and its tributaries". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (37): 16178–16183. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10716178K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1008754107. PMC 2941314. PMID 20805486.
  54. ^ "Pollution in the Great Lakes". ArcGIS via Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI). Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  55. ^ Walker, Nick (1 July 2013). "Pollution in the Great Lakes" (Text). Canadian Geographic. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  56. ^ "Archived: Everyone's Talking About Water: It's Time for Action". Government of Canada. Environment and Climate Change Canada. 21 June 2013 [2 June 2010]. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  57. ^ a b "Ontario's Great Lakes Strategy". Government of Ontario. 29 May 2019 [11 October 2016]. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  58. ^ "Canada Pollutes More Than Its Share". Enviromation. 37: 258–259. 2006.
  59. ^ a b c "United States and Canada Sign Amended Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement". Environment Canada. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
  60. ^ Bruce, James P; Chris Wood (16 September 2012). "Canada-U.S. Great Lakes water quality: One step forward, two steps back". The Star. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
  61. ^ Canada, Environment; Canada, Fisheries and Oceans; Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs (2008). "Land-Based Pollution in the Arctic Ocean: Canadian Actions in a Regional and Global Context". Arctic. 61 (5): 111–121. doi:10.14430/arctic106. hdl:10535/5556.
  62. ^ "Arctic Ocean Pollution Doubled in 10 Years". UPI. 23 October 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
  63. ^ Casey, Allan (2006). "Forgotten lake". Canadian Geographic. Archived from the original on 21 November 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  64. ^ a b Leavitt, Peter; Bunting, Lynda (May 2011). Sudden ecosystem state change in Lake Winnipeg, Canada, caused by eutrophication (Report). Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  65. ^ El Akkad, Omar (22 November 2007). "The Irving family tree". Globe and Mail. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  66. ^ a b c d MacKinnon, Bobbi-Jean (9 October 2018). "Irving Pulp and Paper pleads guilty to pollution charges, faces $3.5M penalty". CBC News. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  67. ^ "Irving constitutional challenge a threat to pollution rules". CBC News. 9 October 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Water_pollution_in_Canada&oldid=1249266936"