Khalaj is a Turkic language spoken in Iran. Although it contains many old Turkic elements, it has become widely Persianized.[5][6] Khalaj has about 150 words of uncertain origin.[7]
| Khalaj | |
|---|---|
| خلج | |
 Khalaj in the Persian Nasta'liq form | |
| Native to | Iran |
| Region | Distributed throughout a number of villages in the Markazi Province from Qom to Ashtian and Tafresh |
| Ethnicity | Khalaj |
Native speakers | 19,000 (2018)[1] |
Turkic
| |
Early form | Arghu
|
| Dialects | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | klj |
| Glottolog | turk1303 |
| ELP | Khalaj |
 Map of the location of the Khalaj Language. | |
Surveys have found that most young Khalaj parents do not pass the language on to their children; only 5% of families teach their children the language.[1]
The Khalaj language is a descendant of an old Turkic language called Arghu.[8][9] The 11th-century Turkic lexicographer Mahmud al-Kashgari was the first person to give written examples of the Khalaj language, which are mostly interchangeable with modern Khalaj.[6]
Gerhard Doerfer, who rediscovered Khalaj, demonstrated that it was an independent branch from Common Turkic.[9]
Classification
editThe Turkic languages are a language family of at least 35 documented languages spoken by the Turkic peoples.[10]
While initially thought to be closely related to Azerbaijani, linguistic studies, particularly those done by Gerhard Doerfer, led to the reclassification of Khalaj as a distinct non-Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family.[11] Evidence for the reassignment includes the preservation of the vowel length contrasts found in Proto-Turkic (PT),[12] word-initial *h, and the lack of the sound change *d > y characteristic of Oghuz languages.[13]
The conservative character of Khalaj can be seen by comparing the same words across different Turkic varieties. For example, in Khalaj, the word for 'foot' is hadaq, while the cognate word in nearby Oghuz languages is ayaq (compare Turkish ayak). Because of the preservation of these archaic features, some scholars have speculated that the Khalaj people are the descendants of the Arghu Turks.[14]
Ethnologue and ISO formerly listed a Northwestern Iranian language named "Khalaj" with the same population figure as the Turkic language.[15] The Khalaj speak their Turkic language and Persian, and the supposed Iranian language of the Khalaj is spurious.[16][17]
Geographical distribution
editKhalaj is spoken mainly in Markazi Province in Iran distributed throughout a number of villages from Qom to Ashtian and Tafresh.[18] Doerfer cites the number of speakers as approximately 17,000 in 1968, and 20,000 in 1978.[19] Ethnologue reports that the population of speakers grew to 42,107 by 2000;[20][verification needed] however, in 2018 Khalaj poet and researcher Ali Asghar Jamrasi estimated the number of speakers to be 19,000.[1]
Dialects
editThe main dialects of Khalaj are Northern and Southern. Within the dialect groupings, individual villages and groupings of speakers have distinct speech patterns.[citation needed]
The linguistic difference between the most distant dialects is not smaller (or even bigger) than Kazan Tatar and Bashkir or between Rumelian Turkish and Azerbaijani.[19]
Phonology
editConsonants
edit| Labial | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||||
| Stop/ Affricate |
voiceless | p | t | ç [t͡ʃ] | k | q | |
| voiced | b | d | c [d͡ʒ] | ɡ | ɢ | ||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ş [ʃ] | x | h | |
| voiced | v | z | ʒ | ğ [ɣ] | |||
| Approximant | l | j | |||||
| Rhotic | r | ||||||
Vowels
edit| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| unrounded | rounded | |||
| Close | i [i] í [iː] | ü [y] ű [yː] | ı [ɨ] ì [ɨː] | u [u] ú [uː] |
| Mid | e [e] é [eː] | ö [ø] ő [øː] | o [o] ó [oː] | |
| Open | ə [æ] ə́ [æː] | a [a] á [aː] | ||
Doerfer claims that Khalaj retains three vowel lengths postulated for Proto-Turkic: long (e.g. qán [qaːn] 'blood'), half-long (e.g. bàş [baˑʃ] 'head') and short (e.g. hat [hat] 'horse').[22][23] However, Alexis Manaster Ramer challenges both the interpretation that Khalaj features three vowel lengths and that Proto-Turkic had the same three-way contrast.[24] Some vowels of Proto-Turkic are realized as falling diphthongs, as in [quo̯l] 'arm'.[citation needed]
Grammar
editMorphology
editNouns
editNouns in Khalaj might receive a plural marker or possessive marker. Cases in Khalaj include genitive, accusative, dative, locative, ablative, instrumental, and equative.
Forms of case suffixes change based on vowel harmony and the consonants they follow. Case endings also interact with possessive suffixes. A table of basic case endings is provided below:
| Case | Suffix |
|---|---|
| Nominative | ∅ (unmarked) |
| Genitive | -Un, -u:y, -i:, -i:n |
| Dative | -A, -KA |
| Accusative | -I, -NI |
| Locative | -čA |
| Ablative | -dA |
| Instrumental | -lAn, -lA, -nA |
| Equative | -vāra |
The equative can also be expressed by the words täkin, täki and other forms.
Verbs
editVerbs in Khalaj are inflected for voice, tense, aspect, and negation. Verbs consist of long strings of morphemes in the following array:
- Stem + Voice + Negation + Tense/Aspect + Agreement
Due to Persian influence, Khalaj has, like Qashqai, lost converb constructions of the form -Ib/-Ip.
Syntax
editKhalaj employs subject–object–verb word order. Adjectives precede nouns.
Vocabulary
editThe core of Khalaj vocabulary is Turkic, but many words have been borrowed from Persian. Words from neighboring Turkic languages (namely Azerbaijani), have also made their way into Khalaj.
For example, Khalaj numbers are Turkic in form, but some speakers replace the forms for "80" and "90" with Persian terms.
Examples
editExcerpt from Doerfer & Tezcan 1994, transliterated by Doerfer:[25]
| Translation | IPA | In Latin alphabet |
|---|---|---|
| Once, Mullah Nasreddin had a son. | biː ki.niː mol.laː nas.ɾæd.diː.niːn oɣ.lu vaːɾ-aɾ.ti | Bí kiní mollá nasrəddínín oğlu vár-arti. |
| He said, "Oh Father, I want a wife." | hay.dɨ ki "æj baː.ba, mæŋ ki.ʃi ʃæj.jo.ɾum" | Haüdı ki "Əy bába, məñ kişi şəyyorum." |
| He said, "My dear, we have a cow; take this cow and sell it. Come with the proceeds, we shall buy you a wife!" | hay.dɨ ki "bɒː.ba bi.zym biː sɨ.ɣɨ.ɾɨ.myz vaːɾ, je.tip bo sɨ.ɣɨ.ɾɨ saː.tɨ, naɣd ʃæj.i puˑ.lĩn, jæk biz sæ̃ ki.ʃi al.duq" | Haüdı ki "Bába bizüm bí sığırımüz vár, yetip bo sığırı sátı. Nağd şəyi púlín, yək biz sə̃ kişi alduq!" |
A piece of folk poetry by Abdullah Vasheqani, transcribed in the Common Turkic alphabet and translated into English by Hasan Güzel:[26]
Vaşqan baluqum xeleç teq var tilim |
Vasheqan my village, Khalaj my language |
References
edit- ^ a b c زبان خلجی در حال انقراض [Endangered Khalaj language]. Hamshahri Online (in Persian). 2019-08-14. Archived from the original on 2023-04-09.
- ^ Doerfer 1978, p. 17: "Thus, the western dialects, e.g. of Talx-āb, are regarded by other Khalaj as a different language, and this is a well tenable conception."
- ^ Doerfer 1978, p. 18.
- ^ Doerfer 1978, p. 20.
- ^ Knüppel 2010.
- ^ a b Ölmez 1995.
- ^ Doerfer 1978, p. 32.
- ^ Johanson & Csató 1998, p. 81.
- ^ a b Robbeets 2015, p. 8.
- ^ Dybo 2006, p. 766.
- ^ Kıral 2000, p. 89.
- ^ Cheung & Aydemir 2015, p. 80.
- ^ Doerfer 1978, p. 22.
- ^ Kuribayashi 2021, p. 469.
- ^ "Khalaj". Ethnologue (17th ed.). SIL International. Archived from the original on 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2020-03-18.
Different from Turkic Khalaj [klj] in Iran.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Hammarström (2015) Ethnologue 16/17/18th editions: a comprehensive review: online appendices
- ^ "Request Number 2019-026 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 2019-03-12. Retrieved 2020-03-18.
- ^ Ragagnin 2020, p. 574.
- ^ a b Doerfer 1978, p. 17.
- ^ Khalaj language at Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019)
- ^ a b Shcherbak 1997, p. 472.
- ^ Doerfer 1971.
- ^ Doerfer & Tezcan 1980.
- ^ Manaster Ramer 1995, pp. 187–88.
- ^ Doerfer & Tezcan 1994, pp. 158–159.
- ^ Güzel 2022, p. 100.
Sources
edit- Cheung, Johnny; Aydemir, Hakan (2015). "Turco-Afghanica: On East Iranian *amarnā and Turkic alma, alïmla, almïla 'apple'". In Pelevin, Mikhail (ed.). Turco-Afghanica "На Пастбище Мысли Благой". Сборник статей к юбилею И. М. Стеблин-Каменского ["On the Pasture of Good Thoughts": Collected Articles for the Anniversary of I. M. Steblin-Kamensky] (in Russian and English). Saint Petersburg: Kontrast. pp. 73–94. ISBN 9785438001256. OCLC 1038607183.
- Doerfer, Gerhard (1971). Khalaj Materials. Bloomington: Indiana University Publications. ISBN 9780877501503. OCLC 240052.
- Doerfer, Gerhard (1978). "Khalaj and its relation to the other Turkic languages". Yearbook of Turkic Studies – Belleten 1977. 25: 17–32. ISSN 0564-5050. Archived from the original on 2021-09-24.
- Doerfer, Gerhard; Tezcan, Semih (1980). Wörterbuch des Chaladsch (Dialekt von Charrab) [Khalaj Dictionary (Charrab Dialect)]. Bibliotheca Orientalis Hungarica (in German and Khalaj). Vol. 26. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 9789630518420. OCLC 8095415.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Doerfer, Gerhard; Tezcan, Semih (1994). Folklore-Texte der Chaladsch [Folklore Texts of the Khalaj] (in German and Khalaj). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447034845. OCLC 32612731.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Dybo, Anna (2006). Хронология тюркских языков и лингвистические контакты ранних тюрков [Chronology of Turkic languages and linguistic contacts of early Turks]. In Tenišev, E. R.; Dybo, A. V. (eds.). Пратюркский язык-основа. Картина мира пратюркского этноса по данным языка [Proto-Turkic Base Language: A Picture of the World of the Proto-Turks According to Their Language] (PDF). Сравнительно-историческая грамматика тюркских языков [Comparative-Historical Grammar of Turkic Languages] (in Russian). Vol. 6. Moscow: Nauka. pp. 766–817. ISBN 9785020327108. OCLC 13008487. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-12-17. Retrieved 2020-03-18.
- Güzel, Hasan (Winter 2022). "Khalaj Literary Production in an Electronic Cultural Environment in the Context of Cultural Sustainability". Millî Folklor. 17 (136): 94–108. doi:10.58242/millifolklor.1038429. ISSN 2146-8087.
- Kıral, Filiz (2000). "Reflections on –miš in Khalaj". In Johanson, Lars; Utas, Bo (eds.). Evidentials: Turkic, Iranian and Neighbouring Languages. The Hague: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 89–102. ISBN 9783110805284. OCLC 868974004.
- Knüppel, Michael (2010). "ḴALAJ ii. Ḵalaji Language". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Archived from the original on 2019-12-11.
- Kuribayashi, Yuu (2021). "Turkish and Uyghur verb-verb complexes in contrast". In Kageyama, Taro; Hook, Peter E.; Pardeshi, Prashant (eds.). Verb-Verb Complexes in Asian Languages. Oxford Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 455–470. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198759508.003.0017. ISBN 9780191077432. OCLC 1245491300.
- Johanson, Lars; Csató, Éva Ágnes (1998). The Turkic Languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415082006. OCLC 40980286.
- Manaster Ramer, Alexis (1995). "Khalaj (and Turkic) vowel lengths revisited". Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 85: 187–197. JSTOR 23866156.
- Ölmez, Mehmet (February 1995). "Halaçlar ve Halaçça" [Khalajis and Khalaj] (PDF). Çağdaş Türk Dili (in Turkish). 7 (84): 15–22. ISSN 1300-1345. OCLC 222016380. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-11-12. Retrieved 2020-03-18.
- Ragagnin, E. (August 2020). "Major and Minor Turkic Language Islands in Iran with a Special Focus on Khalaj". Iranian Studies. 53 (3–4): 573–588. doi:10.1080/00210862.2020.1740881. S2CID 218924277.
- Robbeets, Martine (2015). Diachrony of Verb Morphology: Japanese and the Transeurasian Languages. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. doi:10.1515/9783110399943. ISBN 9783110378238. ISSN 1861-4302. OCLC 945754396.
- Shcherbak, A. M. (1997). Xaлaджcкий язык [Khalaj language]. In Tenišev, E. R. (ed.). Тюркские языки [Turkic Languages]. Языки мира [Languages of the World] (in Russian). Vol. 2. Moscow: Indrik. pp. 470–476. ISBN 9785857590614. OCLC 68040217.
Further reading
edit- Bosnalı, Soneli (2012), "Dil Edimi Açisindan Halaççanin Konumu" [Position of Khalaj Language in Terms of Acquisition] (PDF), Karadeniz Araştırmaları [Journal of Black Sea Studies] (in Turkish), 9 (32): 45–67, archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-04-24
- Bosworth, C. E.; Doerfer, G. (2012). "K̲h̲alad̲j̲". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0485.
- Bulut, Christiane. "The Turkic varieties of Iran". In: The Languages and Linguistics of Western Asia: An Areal Perspective. Edited by Geoffrey Haig and Geoffrey Khan. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2019. pp. 398–444. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110421682-013
- Doerfer, Gerhard (1985). "Kabulafscharisch Und Chaladsch (Ein Beitrag Mit Vielen Fragezeichen)". Central Asiatic Journal. 29 (3/4): 166–75. JSTOR 41927483.
- Doerfer, Gerhard (1988). Grammatik des Chaladsch [Grammar of Khalaj]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447028653. OCLC 21035642.
- Doerfer, Gerhard (1997). "Türkische Sprachen Und Dialekte in Iran". Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes (in German). 87: 41–63. JSTOR 23863155.
- Kabak, Barış (2004), "Acquiring phonology is not acquiring inventories but contrasts: The loss of Turkic and Korean primary long vowels", Linguistic Typology, 8 (3): 351–368, doi:10.1515/lity.2004.8.3.351, S2CID 122917987
- Manaster Ramer, Alexis (1997). "Khalaj Vowel Lengths: A Reevaluation of the Bazin Data". Central Asiatic Journal. 41 (1): 35–37. JSTOR 41928087. Accessed 3 Jan. 2023.
- Minorsky, V. (1940), "The Turkish Dialect of the Khalaj", Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, 10 (2): 417–437, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00087607, JSTOR 608400, S2CID 162589866
- Poppe, Nikolaus (1983). "Chaladsch und die Altaische Sprachwissenschaft". Central Asiatic Journal. 27 (1/2): 112–120. JSTOR 41927392.