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Tigranes the Great

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This article is about a king of Armenia in the 1st century BC. For other historical figures with the same name (including other kings of Armenia), see Tigranes.

Tigranes II, more commonly known as Tigranes the Great (Tigran Mets in Armenian;[5][a][b] 140–55 BC), was a king of Armenia. A member of the Artaxiad dynasty, he ruled from 95 BC to 55 BC. Under his reign, the Armenian kingdom expanded beyond its traditional boundaries and reached its peak, allowing Tigranes to claim the title Great King or King of Kings. His empire for a short time was the most powerful state to the east of the Roman Republic. The appearance of Halley's comet during his reign, as depicted on the rare series of Tigranes's coins,[8] was seen as an auspicious sign.[9]

Tigranes the Great
King of Kings
Great King
King of Armenia
King of Syria
King of Media[1][2]
King of the Four Corners of the World[1][2]
Coin of Tigranes, Antioch mint.
King of Armenia
Reign95–55 BC
PredecessorTigranes I
SuccessorArtavasdes II
Born140 BC
Died55 BC (aged 85)
Burial
Tigranocerta
(modern-day Diyarbakır, Turkey)
ConsortCleopatra of Pontus
IssueZariadres
Tigranes
Artavasdes II
Unnamed son
Ariazate
Two unnamed daughters
DynastyArtaxiad
FatherArtavasdes I or Tigranes I
ReligionZoroastrianism[3][4]

Either the son or nephew of Artavasdes I, Tigranes was given as a hostage to Mithridates II of Parthia after Armenia came under Parthian suzerainty. After ascending to the Armenian throne, he rapidly expanded his kingdom by invading or annexing Roman and Parthian client-kingdoms. Tigran decided to ally with Mithridates VI of Pontus by marrying his daughter Cleopatra. At its height, Tigranes' empire stretched from the Pontic Alps to Mesopotamia and from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. With captured vassals, his lands even reached the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Many of the inhabitants of conquered cities were forcibly relocated to his new capital, Tigranocerta. An admirer of the Greek culture, Tigranes invited many Greek rhetoricians and philosophers to his court, and his capital was noted for its Hellenistic architecture.

Armenia came into direct conflict with Rome after Mithridates VI was forced to seek refuge in Tigranes' court. In 69 BC, Tigranes was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tigranocerta by a Roman army under the command of Lucullus, and a year later he met another major defeat at Artaxata, the old Armenian capital. The recall of Lucullus gave Tigranes a brief respite, but in 66 BC Armenia faced another Roman invasion led by Pompey, aided by Tigranes' own son, Tigranes the Younger. Tigranes chose to surrender and was allowed to retain the heartland of his kingdom as a Roman buffer state, while all of his conquests were annexed. He continued to rule Armenia as a client-king of Rome until his death around 55 BC at the age of 85.

Early years

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In approximately 120 BC, the Parthian king Mithridates II (r. 124–91 BC) invaded Armenia and made its king Artavasdes I acknowledge Parthian suzerainty.[10] Artavasdes I was forced to give the Parthians Tigranes, who was either his son or nephew, as a hostage.[10][11] Tigranes lived in the Parthian court at Ctesiphon, where he was schooled in Parthian culture.[12] Tigranes remained a hostage at the Parthian court until c. 96/95 BC, when Mithridates II released him and appointed him as the king of Armenia.[13][14] Tigranes ceded an area called "seventy valleys" in the Caspiane to Mithridates II, either as a pledge or because Mithridates II demanded it.[15] Tigranes' daughter Ariazate had also married a son of Mithridates II, which has been suggested by the modern historian Edward Dąbrowa to have taken place shortly before he ascended the Armenian throne as a guarantee of his loyalty.[14] Tigranes would remain a Parthian vassal until the late 80s BC.[16]

When he came to power, the foundation upon which Tigranes was to build his Empire was already in place, a legacy of the founder of the Artaxiad dynasty, Artaxias I, and subsequent kings. The mountains of Armenia, however, formed natural borders between the different regions of the country and as a result, the feudalistic nakharars had significant influence over the regions or provinces in which they were based. This did not suit Tigranes, who wanted to create a centralized empire. He thus proceeded by consolidating his power within Armenia before embarking on his campaign.[17]

He deposed Artanes, the last king of the Kingdom of Sophene and a descendant of Zariadres.[18]

Alliance with Pontus

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During the First Mithridatic War (89–85 BC), Tigranes supported Mithridates VI of Pontus, but was careful not to become directly involved in the war.

He rapidly built up his power and established an alliance with Mithridates VI, marrying his daughter Cleopatra. Tigranes agreed to extend his influence in the East, while Mithridates set to conquer Roman land in Asia Minor and in Europe. By creating a stronger Hellenistic state, Mithridates was to contend with the well-established Roman foothold in Europe.[17] Mithridates executed a planned general attack on Romans and Italians in Asia Minor, tapping into local discontent with the Romans and their taxes and urging the peoples of Asia Minor to raise against foreign influence. The slaughter of 80,000 people in the province of Asia Minor was known as the Asiatic Vespers. The two kings' attempts to control Cappadocia and then the massacres resulted in guaranteed Roman intervention. The senate decided that Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who was then one of the consuls, would command the army against Mithridates.[19]

René Grousset remarked that in their alliance Mithridates was somewhat subservient to Tigranes.[20]

Wars against Roman and Parthian client kingdoms

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Tigranes the Great's Armenian Empire: Countries, composing parts of the Empire

...At first he had served as a hostage among the Parthians; then by their means he returned to his country, in compensation for which service they obtained seventy valleys in Armenia. When he acquired power, he recovered these valleys, and devastated the country of the Parthians, the territory about Ninus, and that about Arbela.

After the death of Mithridates II of Parthia his son Gotarzes I succeeded him.[21] This was disputed by Sinatruces which caused a Parthian civil war. Tigranes, with Rome involved in a Social War and Parthia involved in a succession dispute, quickly invaded Cappadocia but was forced out by the Roman consul Sulla. Between 88 and 85 BC, he retook Adiabene, Gordyene, and Media Atropatene.[11]

In 83 BC, after bloody strife for the throne of Syria, governed by the Seleucids, the Syrians decided to choose Tigranes as the protector of their kingdom and offered him the crown of Syria.[22] Magadates was appointed as his governor in Antioch.[23] He then conquered Phoenicia and Cilicia, effectively putting an end to the last remnants of the Seleucid Empire, though a few holdout cities appear to have recognized the shadowy boy-king Seleucus VII Philometor as the legitimate king during his reign. The southern border of his domain reached as far as Ptolemais (modern Akko). Many of the inhabitants of conquered cities were sent to his new metropolis of Tigranocerta.

At its height, his empire extended from the Pontic Alps (in modern north-eastern Turkey) to Mesopotamia, and from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. A series of victories led him to assume the Achaemenid title of King of Kings, which was contemporaneously being used by the Parthian kings, appearing on coins struck after 85 BC.[24] He was called "Tigranes the Great" by many Western historians and writers, such as Plutarch. The "King of Kings" never appeared in public without having four kings attending him. Cicero, referring to his success in the east, said that he "made the Republic of Rome tremble before the prowess of his arms."[25]

...For though he had started on his career with small and insignificant expectations, he had subdued many nations, humbled the Parthian power as no man before him had done, and filled Mesopotamia with Greeks whom he removed in great numbers from Cilicia and from Cappadocia, and settled anew. He also removed from their wonted haunts the nomadic Arabians, and brought them to an adjacent settlement, that he might employ them in trade and commerce.Many were the kings who waited upon him, and four, whom he always had about him like attendants or body-guards, would run on foot by their master's side when he rode out, clad in short blouses, and when he sat transacting business, would stand by with their arms crossed.

Wars against Rome

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A 19th-century illustration of Tigranes with four vassal kings

Mithridates VI of Pontus had found refuge in Armenian land after confronting Rome, considering the fact that Tigranes was his ally and relative. The King of Kings eventually came into direct contact with Rome. The Roman commander, Lucullus, demanded the expulsion of Mithridates from Armenia – to comply with such a demand would be, in effect, to accept the status of vassal to Rome and thus Tigranes refused.[26] Charles Rollin, in his Ancient History, says:

Tigranes, to whom Lucullus had sent an ambassador, though of no great power in the beginning of his reign, had enlarged it so much by a series of successes, of which there are few examples, that he was commonly surnamed "King of Kings." After having overthrown and almost ruined the family of the kings, successors of the great Seleucus; after having very often humbled the pride of the Parthians, transported whole cities of Greeks into Media, conquered all Syria and Palestine, and given laws to the Arabians called Scenites, he reigned with an authority respected by all the princes of Asia. The people paid him honors after the manners of the East, even to adoration.[27]

Lucullus' reaction was an attack that was so precipitate that he took Tigranes by surprise. According to Roman historians Mithrobazanes, one of Tigranes' generals, told Tigranes of the Roman approach. Tigranes was, according to Keaveney, so impressed by Mithrobazanes' courage that he appointed Mithrobazanes to command an army against Lucullus – Tigranes sent Mithrobarzanes with 2,000 to 3,000 cavalry to expel the invader. Mithrobarzanes charged the Romans while they were setting up their camp, but was met by a 3,500-strong sentry force and his horsemen were routed. He perished in the attempt.[28][29] After this defeat, Tigranes withdrew north to Armenia to regroup, leaving Lucullus free to besiege Tigranocerta.[30]

When Tigranes had gathered a large army, he returned to confront Lucullus. On October 6, 69 BC, Tigranes' much larger force was decisively defeated by the Roman army under Lucullus in the Battle of Tigranocerta. Tigranes' treatment of the inhabitants (the majority of the population had been forced to move to the city) led disgruntled city guards to open the gates of the city to the Romans. Learning of this, Tigranes hurriedly sent 6000 cavalrymen to the city in order to rescue his wives and some of his assets.[17] Tigranes escaped capture with a small escort.

On October 6, 68 BC, the Romans approached the old capital of Artaxata. Tigranes' and Mithridates' combined Armeno-Pontic army of 70,000 men formed up to face them but were resoundingly defeated. Once again, both Mithridates and Tigranes evaded capture by the victorious Romans.[31]

The long campaigning and hardships that Lucullus' troops had endured for years, combined with a perceived lack of reward in the form of plunder,[17] led to successive mutinies among the legions in 68–67. Frustrated by the rough terrain of Northern Armenia and seeing the worsening morale of his troops, Lucullus moved back south and put Nisibis under siege. Tigranes concluded (wrongly) that Nisibis would hold out and sought to regain those parts of Armenia that the Romans had captured.[32] Despite his continuous success in battle, Lucullus could still not capture either one of the monarchs. With Lucullus' troops now refusing to obey his commands, but agreeing to defend positions from attack, the Senate sent Pompey to recall Lucullus to Rome and take over his command.

Pompey and submission to Rome

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A modern statue of Tigranes in Yerevan

In 67 BC[33] Pompey was given the task of defeating Mithridates and Tigranes.[34] Pompey first concentrated on attacking Mithridates while distracting Tigranes by engineering a Parthian attack on Gordyene.[35] Phraates III, the Parthian king, was soon persuaded to take things a little further than an annexation of Gordyene when a son of Tigranes (also named Tigranes) went to join the Parthians and persuaded Phraates to invade Armenia in an attempt to replace the elder Tigranes with the Tigranes the Younger.[36] Tigranes decided not to meet the invasion in the field but instead ensured that his capital, Artaxata, was well defended and withdrew to the hill country. Phraates soon realized that Artaxata would not fall without a protracted siege, the time for which he could not spare due to his fear of plots at home. Once Phraates left, Tigranes came back down from the hills and drove his son from Armenia. The son then fled to Pompey.[37]

In 66 BC, Pompey advanced into Armenia with Tigranes the Younger, and Tigranes, now almost 75 years old, surrendered. Pompey allowed him to retain his kingdom shorn of his conquests as he planned to have Armenia as a buffer state[38][39] and he took 6,000 talents/180 tonnes of silver. His unfaithful son was sent back to Rome as a prisoner.[40]

Tigranes continued to rule Armenia as a client-king of Rome.[41] He died in 55/54, at age 85.

Issue

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Tigranes had four sons and three daughters.[42][43] The eldest son, Zariadres, according to Appian and Valerius Maximus rebelled against Tigranes and was killed during a battle (possibly late 90s BCE).[44][45] Appian also mentions an unnamed younger son who was executed for conspiring against Tigranes: he disregarded his father's health and wore Tigranes's crown (Tigranes having been injured during a hunting accident).[46] His third son, Tigranes the Younger, who showed great care for his injured father and was rewarded for his loyalty,[46] has already been mentioned. He is also alleged to have led a military campaign in 82 BCE.[46] Tigranes was succeeded by his fourth and youngest son, Artavasdes II.

One daughter of Tigranes according to Cassius Dio married Mithridates I of Atropatene.[42][47] Another daughter married Parthian prince Pacorus, son of Orodes II.[43][48] Parchments of Avroman also mention his third daughter, Ariazate "Automa", who married Gotarzes I of Parthia.[3][48]

Although Cleopatra of Pontus is usually considered to be their mother (Appian writes that she gave birth to three sons),[46] historian Gagik Sargsyan considered only Artavasdes II and one of the unnamed daughters to be her children.[49] According to him, the rest had a different mother and were born before Tigranes became king.[50] The reasoning behind it is that if Tigranes the Younger did indeed lead a campaign in 82 BCE, then he and hence his two older brothers (and possibly two sisters) would be too old to be Cleopatra's children.[50] Another argument supporting this claim would be the situation with Ariazate. As she was probably the mother of Orodes I (r. 80–75 BC),[51] then Ariazate could not have been the daughter of Cleopatra who married Tigranes only in 94 BCE at the age of 15 or 16.[52] Sargsyan also proposed a possible candidate as Tigranes's first wife and the children's mother: Artaxiad princess Zaruhi, a daughter of Tigranes's paternal uncle Zariadres and granddaughter of Artaxias I.[52] He also considered likely that the reason for the rebellion of Tigranes's son Zariadres was the birth of Artavasdes who was declared the heir by virtue of being born to a king and not a prince.[53]

Imperial ideology

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Tigranes is a typical example of the mixed culture of his period. The ceremonial of his court was of Achaemenid origin, and also incorporated Parthian aspects.[3] He had Greek rhetoricians and philosophers in his court, possibly as a result of the influence of his queen, Cleopatra.[3] Greek was also possibly spoken in the court.[3] Following the example of the Parthians, Tigranes adopted the title of Philhellene ("friend of the Greeks").[3] The layout of his capital Tigranocerta was a blend of Greek and Iranian architecture.[3]

Like the majority Armenia's inhabitants, Tigranes was a follower of Zoroastrianism.[c][3][54] On his crown, a star of divinity and two birds of prey are displayed, both Iranian aspects.[3][55] The bird of prey was associated with the khvarenah, i.e. kingly glory.[55] It was possibly also a symbol of the bird of the deity Verethragna.[55]

Coinage

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David Marshall Lang noted that his "magnificent" silver coinage is the best known variety of national coinage of Greater Armenia[56] and the "finest ever struck by an Armenian monarch".[57]

Tigranes' coins consist of tetradrachms and copper coins having on the obverse his portrait wearing a decorated Armenian tiara with ear-flaps. The reverse has a completely original design. There are the seated Tyche of Antioch and the river god Orontes at her feet.

 
Tetradrachm of Tigranes II, found in Artaxata.

Legacy and recognition

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Historical assessment

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A late 19th century depiction of Tigranes based on his coinage[58]

Tigranes has long been recognized as the greatest of Armenian monarchs.[59][60] Compared to Mithridates Eupator, Tigranes was marginalized by Roman sources.[61] In one exception, Velleius Paterculus (2.33.1) introduced Tigranes as "the most important of the kings" (regum maximum).[61] Western scholarship has largely adopted the Roman bias against Tigranes. Théodore Reinach considered Tigranes a coward and an opportunist.[62][61] René Grousset called him a "great yet underrated monarch who undoubtedly deserves much more admiration from history" than Mithridates, who brought about the downfall of his empire, while "Tigranes ensured the survival of his people for eternity."[63]

He is the sole ruler in history under whom the entire Armenian plateau (and all Armenian-inhabited lands) was unified under a single native ruler.[64][65][d] Robert H. Hewsen noted, however, that he did not add Lesser Armenia to his kingdom, which remained under the control of Mithradates.[67] The preeminent early Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi called him the "most powerful and intelligent and the most valiant" of all Armenian kings. "He was supreme among men and by showing his valor he glorified our nation."[68]

Some modern historians have taken a more critical stance. In the early 20th century, Leo believed that while he established complete national independence, Tigranes behaved like an "Asian despot ... arrogance blinded him."[69] Leo was dismissive of what he saw as the long-gone legacy of Tigranes, contrasting it with the persistent legacy of the Armenian alphabet invented by Mesrop Mashtots.[70] Hewsen argued that his short-lived empire was "not all that historically significant" and found it "inappropriate to glorify the activities of an Armenian conqueror whose treatment of his subjects (e.g., deporting them by the thousands from their homes to populate his new capital) is considered to be reprehensible by Armenian historians when they see it inflicted upon the Armenians themselves."[71]

Giusto Traina notes that after Lucullus forced him to withdraw from Asia Minor and Syria, "not only his imperial dream, but also the memory of his empire vanished."[61] Theo van Lint argued that while he was not able to consolidate his territorial gains, the forty year peace he established had the "important effect of developing Greater Armenia and the network of clan relationships that would prove crucial for the preservation of Armenian identity in subsequent periods."[72]

His empire, covering a territory of 900,000 km2 (350,000 sq mi) with a multi-ethnic[73] population of ten million,[74][e] is often called "sea to sea Armenia" (Armenian: ծովից ծով Հայաստան, tsovits tsov Hayastan) as it extended from the Caspian to the Mediterranean Sea.[78] Tigranes has been a source of pride for modern Armenian nationalists,[79] with his "sea to sea" empire an inspiration for the most maximalist claims of contemporary Armenian nationalism.[80] George Bournoutian noted that Armenians "revere" Tigranes and sometimes "endow him with modern nationalistic traits and ignore the fact that Tigranes possessed a more Hellenistic and, occasionally, Persian, outlook, rather than that of a modern Armenian."[66] Eric Hobsbawm noted that modern Armenian nationalists, in an effort to find a "suitable (and suitably impressive) national state in the past", had to go back to the times of Tigranes in the first century BC, when the "last sufficiently important kingdom is to be found."[81][82]

Tributes

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In visual arts, he has been depicted by Yervand Kochar in 1940 (gouache on paper)[83] and in a 1959 mural crafted by Van Khachatur inside the Matenadaran in Yerevan, symbolizing Armenia's Hellenistic period.[84][85]

In the early 1990s, a major avenue in central Yerevan, called after the October Revolution was renamed after him.[86] He is the only Armenian king to appear on the Armenian dram,[86] specifically on the 500 dram banknote, which was in circulation from 1993 to 2005.[87]

Three statues of Tigranes have been erected in Armenia, including at the President's Residence (2000), in Yerevan's Nor Nork District (2004), and in the city of Vagharshapat (2016).

The Order of Tigran the Great (image), established in 2002,[88] is awarded by the president of Armenia "for exceptional services" rendered to the Republic of Armenia.[89]

In Europe

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Scarlatti’s Tigrane opera, Opera de Nice, 2012.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Armenian: Տիգրան, Tigran, attested in written Armenian sources since the 5th century AD.[6] Western Armenian pronunciation: Dikran Medz.
  2. ^ Ancient Greek: Τιγράνης ὁ Μέγας, Tigránes ho Mégas; Latin: Tigranes Magnus[7]
  3. ^ The largest expansion took place during the reign of Tigran (II) the Great, who ruled between 95 and 55 bce and whose empire at one time stretched from the Mediterranean to the Caspian Sea...The court ceremonial was Achaemenid, containing also Parthian elements. However, perhaps due to the influence of the queen, Cleopatra of Pontus, there were Greek rhetoricians and philosophers at court..[..]..At court Greek may have been spoken; Tigran's heir Artawazd II wrote his plays and other literary works, which were still known in the second century ce...Tigran's religion was probably Mazdaism, a variety of Zoroastrianism."[3]
  4. ^ George Bournoutian: "the sole Armenian monarch who not only succeeded in unifying all the lands inhabited by the Armenians"[66]
  5. ^ Earlier estimates by Jacques de Morgan, Isaac Don Levine and Bodil Biørn put it considerably higher, at 25 and 30 million.[75][76][77]

References

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  1. ^ a b Strabo 1924, p. 264.
  2. ^ a b Strabo 1924, pp. 264–266; Jones 1924, pp. 1–10
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Romeny 2010, p. 264.
  4. ^ Curtis 2016, p. 185; de Jong 2015, pp. 119–120, 123–125; Chaumont 1986, pp. 418–438
  5. ^ Manaserian, R. (1985). "Tigran B Mets" Տիգրան Բ Մեծ. In Arzumanian, Makich (ed.). Haykakan sovetakan hanragitaran Հայկական սովետական հանրագիտարան [Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia] (in Armenian). Vol. 11. Erevan: Haykakan SSH Gitutʻyunneri Akademia. pp. 697–698.
  6. ^ Achaṛyan, Hrachʻya (1965). "Tigran" Տիգրան. Hayotsʻ andznanunneri baṛaran Հայոց անձնանունների բառարան [Dictionary of Armenian personal names] (in Armenian). Vol. V. Erevan: Petakan hamalsarani hratarakchʻutʻyun. pp. 147-148.
  7. ^ Ubbo Emmius (1620). Appendix Genealogica: illustrando operi chronologico adjecta. Excudebat Ioannes Sassivs. p. D5.
  8. ^ Gurzadyan, V. G.; Vardanyan, R. (August 2004). "Halley's comet of 87 BC on the coins of Armenian king Tigranes?". Astronomy & Geophysics. 45 (4): 4.06. arXiv:physics/0405073. Bibcode:2004A&G....45d...6G. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45406.x. S2CID 119357985.
  9. ^ Mayor, Adrienne (2011). The Poison King: The Life and Legend of Mithradates, Rome's Deadliest Enemy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN 9780691150260.
  10. ^ a b Olbrycht 2009, p. 165.
  11. ^ a b Garsoian 2005.
  12. ^ Mayor 2009, p. 136.
  13. ^ Olbrycht 2009, p. 168.
  14. ^ a b Dąbrowa 2018, p. 78.
  15. ^ Olbrycht 2009, pp. 165, 182 (see note 57).
  16. ^ Olbrycht 2009, p. 169.
  17. ^ a b c d Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1996). Պատմութիւն Հայոց [History of Armenia, Volume I] (in Armenian). Athens: Council of National Education Publishing. pp. 67–76.
  18. ^ Strabo. Geographica, 11.14.15.
  19. ^ Appian. The Civil Wars, 1.55.
  20. ^ René Grousset (1946), Histoire de l'Arménie (in French), Paris, p. 85, Dans l'alliance qui fut alors conclus entre les deux souverains, Mithridates faisait un peu figure client de Tigran.{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  21. ^ Assar 2006, p. 62; Shayegan 2011, p. 225; Rezakhani 2013, p. 770
  22. ^ Litovchenko 2015, p. 179–188.
  23. ^ The House Of Seleucus V2 by Edwyn Robert Bevan.
  24. ^ Theo Maarten van Lint (2009). "The Formation of Armenian Identity in the First Millennium". Church History and Religious Culture. 89 (1/3): 264.
  25. ^ Boyajian, Zabelle C. (1916). An Anthology of Legends and Poems of Armenia. Aram Raffi; Viscount Bryce. London: J.M. Dent & sons, Ltd. p. 117.
  26. ^ Greenhalgh 1981, p. 74.
  27. ^ Rollins, Charles (1844). Ancient History, vol. 4: History of the Macedonians, the Seleucidae in Syria, and Parthians. New York: R. Carter. p. 461.
  28. ^ Philip Matyszak, Mithridates the Great, pp 127-128; Lee Frantatuono, Lucullus, pp 83-84; Plutarch, Life of Lucullus, XII.84.
  29. ^ Keaveney 1992, pp. 106–107.
  30. ^ Keaveney 1992, p. 107.
  31. ^ Steel 2013, p. 141.
  32. ^ Keaveney 1992, p. 119.
  33. ^ The Encyclopaedia of Military History, R E Dupuy and T N Dupuy
  34. ^ Greenhalgh 1981, p. 105.
  35. ^ Greenhalgh 1981, p. 105, 114.
  36. ^ Greenhalgh 1981, p. 114.
  37. ^ Greenhalgh 1981, p. 115.
  38. ^ Scullard, H.H. (1959). From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. New York: F.A. Praeger. p. 106.
  39. ^ Fuller, J.F.C. (1965). Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-306-80422-9.
  40. ^ Chaumont, M. L. (2001–2002). "Tigrane le Jeune, fils de Tigrane le Grand". Revue des Études Arméniennes (in French). 28: 225–247.
  41. ^ Patterson 2015, p. 77.
  42. ^ a b Sargsyan 1991, p. 51.
  43. ^ a b Redgate 2000, p. 77.
  44. ^ Sargsyan 1991, p. 49, 52.
  45. ^ Valerius Maximus. Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX, Liber IX, ext.3.
  46. ^ a b c d Sargsyan 1991, p. 49.
  47. ^ Cassius Dio. The Roman History, XXXVI, 14.
  48. ^ a b Minns 1915, p. 42.
  49. ^ Sargsyan 1991, p. 51, 52.
  50. ^ a b Sargsyan 1991, p. 50.
  51. ^ Assar 2006, p. 67, 74.
  52. ^ a b Sargsyan 1991, p. 53.
  53. ^ Sargsyan 1991, p. 52.
  54. ^ Curtis 2016, p. 185; de Jong 2015, pp. 119–120, 123–125
  55. ^ a b c Curtis 2016, pp. 182, 185.
  56. ^ Lang, David M (1980). "Paul Z. Bedoukian: Coinage of the Artaxiads of Armenia. 1978". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 43 (3): 606–607. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00137693.
  57. ^ Lang, David Marshall (1970). Armenia: Cradle of Civilization. London: Allen & Unwin. pp. 130–131.
  58. ^ Gaidzakian, Ohan (1908) [1898]. Illustrated Armenia and the Armenians. Boston: B. H. Aznive. p. 58., from 1898
  59. ^ Heylyn, Peter (1657). Cosmographie. London: Henry Seile. p. 801. Tigranes, the most mighty King that ever reigned in Armenia...
  60. ^ Rawlinson, George (1869). A Manual of Ancient History. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 302. the greatest of the Armenian monarchs
  61. ^ a b c d Traina 2023.
  62. ^ Reinach, T. (1890). Mithridate Eupator, roi de Pont. Paris, Firmin-Didot, pp. 344-345
  63. ^ Adontz, Nicolas; preface by René Grousset (1946). Histoire d'Arménie : les origines du Xe siècle au VIe (av. J.C.) (in French). Union générale arménienne de bienfaisance: Paris. p. vii. Elle échappera même à la conquête macédonienne et c'est peu après, à la faveur de l'anarchie hellénistique, que l'Armênie antique atteindra sa plus forte extension avec le roi Tigrane, un grand souverain mé- connu qui mérite sans doute bien plus que son contemporain Mithridate Eupator l'admiration de l'histoire , si l'on veut bien observer que Mithridate a brillamment « suicidé son empire » , tandis que Tigrane a assuré la survie de son peuple pour l'éternité.
  64. ^ Nalbandian, Louise (1963). The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties through the Nineteenth Century. University of California Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780520377141. ...it is a fact that only in one period of Armenian history has the whole region been a united kingdom under a single ruler-in the first century B.c., under Tigranes the Great.
  65. ^ Aslanian, Sebouh (Spring 2002). "The 'Treason of the Intellectuals': Reflections on the Uses of Revisionism and Nationalism in Armenian Historiography". Armenian Forum. Gomidas Institute: 1–38. ISSN 1091-4714. Another instance of Aivazian's dubious reading habits concerns Suny's (and other Western Armenologists') claim that "only once in their past [that is during the reign of Tigran the Great, 94–66 B. C. E.] was the entire Armenian plateau unified under a single Armenian ruler." (p. 36) [...] The fact remains that what Suny states is a historical truth.
  66. ^ a b Manandyan, Hakob H. (2007). Tigranes II and Rome. A New Interpretation Based on Primary Sources. Translated by George A. Bournoutian. Mazda Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56859-166-7. PDF
  67. ^ Hewsen 2001, p. 37.
  68. ^ Thomson, Robert W. (1981). "The Armenian Image in Classical Texts". In Hovannisian, Richard G. (ed.). The Armenian Image in History and Literature. Undena Publications. p. 22. ISBN 978-0890030882.
  69. ^ Vardanyan, Vahram Pandukhti (2012). "Լեոյի պատմահայեցողության շուրջ (հին և միջնադարյան ժամանակաշրջաններ [On Leo's Historical Conceptions (Ancient and Medieval Ages)]". Lraber Hasarakakan Gitutyunneri (in Armenian). 2–3 (2–3): 5. ISSN 0320-8117. (PDF)
  70. ^ Leo (1962). Մեսրոպ Մաշտոց [Mesrop Mashtots] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Yerevan University Press. pp. 76-77.; originally published as: Leo (1904). Ս. Մեսրոպ [St. Mesrop] (in Armenian). Tiflis: Hermes.
  71. ^ Hewsen 2001, p. 2.
  72. ^ Lint, Theo Maarten Van (2010). "The Formation Of Armenian Identity In The First Millenium". Religious Origins of Nations?. Brill. p. 265. ISBN 978-90-474-4436-7.
  73. ^ Kohl, Philip L. (2012). "Homelands in the Present and in the Past: Political Implications of a Dangerous Concept". In Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (eds.). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ISBN 9781139789387.
  74. ^ Manaseryan, Ruben L. [in Armenian] (2022). "Տիգրան Մեծի անձի և գործունեության գնահատականի շուրջ" (PDF). Vem: 39. doi:10.57192/18291864-2022.3-33. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-02-10. Հայոց արքայի իշխելը 10 միլիոն բնակչություն ունեցող 900.000 կմ² տարածքի վրա
  75. ^ de Morgan, Jacques (1917). Essai sur les nationalités (in French). Paris: Berger-Levrault. p. 115. Or, leurs ambitions ne vont nulle- ment jusqu'à désirer comme frontières les limites du royaume de Tigrane le Grand. L'Arménie comptait alors 25 millions d'habitants, tandis qu'aujourd'hui cette nation, éprouvée par tant de massacres, d'émigrations et de conversions forcées, ne comprend plus que tout au plus 4 millions d'âmes, dont environ la moitié habite des territoires qui, politiquement, font partie de l'Empire du Tsar.
  76. ^ Levine, Isaac Don (1919). The Resurrected Nations. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company. p. 265.
  77. ^ Bodil Katharine Biørn (1944). Armenia og armenierne (in Norwegian). "Armenia var tidligere et kongerike som var størst under Digranes den store. Han grunnla Digranagerd (Diabekir) og regjerte over 30 mill. mennesker."; published in Kvinnelige misjonsarbeidere, Se til hvorledes i bygger videre, K.M.A. gjennom 50 år (Oslo, 1952); translated into Armenian «Հայաստանը նախկինում թագավորություն է եղել, որն ամենամեծն է եղել Տիգրան Մեծի օրոք։ Նա հիմնել է Տիգրանակերտը (Դիարբեքիր) և կառավարել ավելի քան 30 մլն բնակչության։»
  78. ^ Verluise, Pierre (1995). Armenia in Crisis: The 1988 Earthquake. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. xxiv. ISBN 9780814325278.
  79. ^ Panossian, Razmik (2006). The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 42. ISBN 9780231139267.
  80. ^ Ter Minassian, Taline [in French] (2013). "La restauration soviétique du temple antique de Garni (Arménie) : un paradigme patrimonial? [The Soviet restoration of the ancient temple of Garni (Armenia): a heritage paradigm?]". Patrimoine & Architecture dans les États post-soviétiques [Heritage & Architecture in Post-Soviet states] (in French). Presses Universitaires de Rennes. p. 26. ISBN 9782753526426.
  81. ^ Hobsbawm, E. J. (1990). "Popular proto-nationalism". Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Cambridge University Press. p. 76.
  82. ^ Traina 2004.
  83. ^ "Տիգրան Մեծ [Tigran Mets]". kochar.am (in Armenian). Ervand Kochar Museum. Archived from the original on 15 October 2024.
  84. ^ Grigorian, M. V. (1960). "Մատենադարանի շենքի կառուցման մասին [On construction of the Matenadaran building]" (PDF). Banber Matenadarani (in Armenian). 5: 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-21. Retrieved 2018-12-15.
  85. ^ Government of the Republic of Armenia (2 November 2004). "Հայաստանի Հանրապետության Երևան քաղաքի պատմության և մշակույթի անշարժ հուշարձանների պետակական ցուցակ [List of historical and cultural monuments of Yerevan]". arlis.am (in Armenian). Armenian Legal Information System. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016.
  86. ^ a b Panossian 2006, p. 42.
  87. ^ "Banknotes out of Circulation - 500 dram". cba.am. Central Bank of Armenia. Archived from the original on 19 February 2022. The tetradrachm of the King Tigran the Great, mountain of Ararat
  88. ^ "Տիգրան Մեծ» շքանշանի նկարագրությունը և նմուշը հաստատելու մասին որոշում". arlis.am (in Armenian). Armenian Legal Information System. 14 October 2002. Archived from the original on 15 October 2024.
  89. ^ "The Order Tigran the Great". president.am. The Office of the President of the Republic of Armenia. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023.
  90. ^ Lucian. Macrobii, 15.
  91. ^ Payaslian, Simon (2007). The History of Armenia. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-4039-7467-9.
  92. ^ Thomson, Robert W. (1981). "The Armenian Image in Classical Texts". In Hovannisian, Richard G. (ed.). The Armenian Image in History and Literature. Undena Publications. p. 22, ftn. 4. ISBN 978-0890030882.
  93. ^ Kharmandarian, M. S. (1975). "Опера «Тигран» Алессандро Скарлатти". Lraber Hasarakakan Gitutyunneri (in Russian) (3): 59–69.
  94. ^ Khachatryan, Hayk [in Armenian] (3 February 1971). "24 օպերա Տիգրան Մեծի անունով" (PDF). Hayreniki dzayn (in Armenian) (289): 7.
  95. ^ a b Locke, Ralph P. (July 29, 2021). "Classical Album Review: "The Other Cleopatra"—Three Major Opera Composers Bring Us the Forgotten Queen of Armenia". The Arts Fuse. Archived from the original on 19 October 2024.
  96. ^ Maiello, James V. (24 July 2020). "Review: "The Other Cleopatra: Queen of Armenia"". Fanfare via Kaunas City Symphony Orchestra. Archived from the original on 19 October 2024. ...three operas about Armenian king Tigranes "the Great." She presents selections from Hasse, Vivaldi, and Gluck to show how this Cleopatra was characterized musically in various ways. The project also highlights the popularity of Tigranes as a subject for 18th-century opera.

Bibliography

edit
English
Russian
French
German
Armenian
  • Manaseryan, Ruben (2007). Տիգրան Մեծ՝ Հայկական Պայքարը Հռոմի և Պարթևաստանի Դեմ, մ.թ.ա. 94–64 թթ [Tigran the Great: The Armenian Struggle Against Rome and Parthia, 94–64 B.C.] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Lusakan Publishing.
Tigranes the Great
Born: 140 BC Died: 55 BC
Preceded by King of Armenia
95 BC – 55 BC 		Succeeded by
Preceded by King of Syria
83 BC – 69 BC 		Succeeded by
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