The examples and perspective in this article may not include all significant viewpoints. (September 2017) |
The Sino–Indian border dispute is an ongoing territorial dispute over the sovereignty of two relatively large, and several smaller, separated pieces of territory between China and India. The first of the territories, Aksai Chin, is administered by China and claimed by India; it is mostly uninhabited high-altitude wasteland but with some significant pasture lands at the margins.[1] It lies at the intersection of Kashmir, Tibet and Xinjiang, and is crossed by China's Xinjiang-Tibet Highway; the other disputed territory is south of the McMahon Line, in the area formerly known as the North-East Frontier Agency and now a state called Arunachal Pradesh. It is administered by India and claimed by China. The McMahon Line was signed between British India and Tibet to form part of the 1914 Simla Convention, but the latter was never ratified by China.[2] China disowns the McMahon Line agreement, stating that Tibet was not independent when it signed the Simla Convention.
Sino–Indian border dispute | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Kashmir dispute | |||||||
![]() Line of Actual Control between China and India (map by the CIA) | |||||||
|
The 1962 Sino-Indian War was fought in both disputed areas. Chinese troops attacked Indian border posts in Ladakh in the west and crossed the McMahon line in the east. There was a brief border clash in 1967 in the region of Sikkim, despite there being an agreed border in that region. In 1987 and in 2013, potential conflicts over the Lines of Actual Control were successfully de-escalated. A conflict involving a Bhutanese-controlled area on the border between Bhutan and China was successfully de-escalated in 2017 following injuries to both Indian and Chinese troops.[3] Multiple skirmishes broke out in 2020, escalating to dozens of deaths in June 2020.[4]
Agreements signed pending the ultimate resolution of the boundary question were concluded in 1993 and 1996. This included "confidence-building measures" and the Line of Actual Control. To address the boundary question formalised groups were created such as the Joint Working Group (JWG) on the boundary question. It was to be assisted by the Diplomatic and Military Expert Group. In 2003 the Special Representatives (SRs) mechanism was constituted.[5][6] In 2012 another dispute resolution mechanism, the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) was framed.[7]
Background
editAksai Chin
editFrom the area's lowest point on the Karakash River at about 14,000 feet (4,300 m) to the glaciated peaks up to 22,500 feet (6,900 m) above sea level, Aksai Chin is a desolate, largely uninhabited area. It covers an area of about 37,244 square kilometres (14,380 sq mi). The desolation of this area meant that it had no significant human importance other than ancient trade routes crossing it, providing brief passage during summer for caravans of yaks from Xinjiang and Tibet.[8]
One of the earliest treaties regarding the boundaries in the western sector was issued in 1842 following the Dogra–Tibetan War. The Sikh Empire of the Punjab region had annexed Ladakh into the state of Jammu in 1834. In 1841, they invaded Tibet with an army. Tibetan forces defeated the Sikh army and in turn entered Ladakh and besieged Leh. After being checked by the Sikh forces, the Tibetan and the Sikhs signed the Treaty of Chushul in September 1842, which stipulated no transgressions or interference in the other country's frontiers.[9] The British defeat of the Sikhs in 1846 resulted in transfer of sovereignty over Ladakh to the British, and British commissioners attempted to meet with Chinese officials to discuss the border they now shared. However, both sides were sufficiently satisfied that a traditional border was recognised and defined by natural elements, and the border was not demarcated.[9] The boundaries at the two extremities, Pangong Lake and Karakoram Pass, were reasonably well-defined, but the Aksai Chin area in between lay largely undefined.[8][10][unreliable source?]
The Johnson Line
editW. H. Johnson, a civil servant with the Survey of India proposed the "Johnson Line" in 1865, which put Aksai Chin in Jammu and Kashmir. This was the time of the Dungan revolt, when China did not control Xinjiang, so this line was never presented to the Chinese. Johnson presented this line to the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, who then claimed the 18,000 square kilometres contained within his territory[11][unreliable source?] and by some accounts[citation needed] he claimed territory further north as far as the Sanju Pass in the Kun Lun Mountains. The Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir constructed a fort at Shahidulla (modern-day Xaidulla), and had troops stationed there for some years to protect caravans.[12] Eventually, most sources placed Shahidulla and the upper Karakash River firmly within the territory of Xinjiang (see accompanying map). According to Francis Younghusband, who explored the region in the late 1880s, there was only an abandoned fort and not one inhabited house at Shahidulla when he was there – it was just a convenient staging post and a convenient headquarters for the nomadic Kirghiz.[13][non-primary source needed] The abandoned fort had apparently been built a few years earlier by the Dogras.[14][non-primary source needed] In 1878 the Chinese had reconquered Xinjiang, and by 1890 they already had Shahidulla before the issue was decided.[11][unreliable source?] By 1892, China had erected boundary markers at Karakoram Pass.[citation needed]
In 1897 a British military officer, Sir John Ardagh, proposed a boundary line along the crest of the Kun Lun Mountains north of the Yarkand River.[15] At the time Britain was concerned at the danger of Russian expansion as China weakened, and Ardagh argued that his line was more defensible. The Ardagh line was effectively a modification of the Johnson line, and became known as the "Johnson-Ardagh Line".
The Macartney-Macdonald Line
editIn 1893, Hung Ta-chen, a senior Chinese official at St. Petersburg, gave maps of the region to George Macartney, the British consul general at Kashgar, which coincided in broad details.[16] In 1899, Britain proposed a revised boundary, initially suggested by Macartney and developed by the Governor General of India Lord Elgin. This boundary placed the Lingzi Tang plains, which are south of the Laktsang range, in India, and Aksai Chin proper, which is north of the Laktsang range, in China. This border, along the Karakoram Mountains, was proposed and supported by British officials for a number of reasons. The Karakoram Mountains formed a natural boundary, which would set the British borders up to the Indus River watershed while leaving the Tarim River watershed in Chinese control, and Chinese control of this tract would present a further obstacle to Russian advance in Central Asia.[17] The British presented this line, known as the Macartney-MacDonald Line, to the Chinese in 1899 in a note by Sir Claude MacDonald. The Qing government did not respond to the note.[18] According to some commentators, China believed that this had been the accepted boundary.[19]
1899 to 1947
editBoth the Johnson-Ardagh and the Macartney-MacDonald lines were used on British maps of India.[11][unreliable source?] Until at least 1908, the British took the Macdonald line to be the boundary,[20] but in 1911, the Xinhai Revolution resulted in the collapse of central power in China, and by the end of World War I, the British officially used the Johnson Line. However they took no steps to establish outposts or assert actual control on the ground. In 1927, the line was adjusted again as the government of British India abandoned the Johnson line in favour of a line along the Karakoram range further south. However, the maps were not updated and still showed the Johnson Line.[citation needed]
From 1917 to 1933, the "Postal Atlas of China", published by the Government of China in Peking had shown the boundary in Aksai Chin as per the Johnson line, which runs along the Kunlun mountains.[16][19] The "Peking University Atlas", published in 1925, also put the Aksai Chin in India.[21]: 101 When British officials learned of Soviet officials surveying the Aksai Chin for Sheng Shicai, warlord of Xinjiang in 1940–1941, they again advocated the Johnson Line. At this point the British had still made no attempts to establish outposts or control over the Aksai Chin, nor was the issue ever discussed with the governments of China or Tibet, and the boundary remained undemarcated at India's independence.[22][23]
Since 1947
editUpon independence in 1947, the government of India fixed its official boundary in the west, which included the Aksai Chin, in a manner that resembled the Ardagh–Johnson Line. India's basis for defining the border was "chiefly by long usage and custom".[24] Unlike the Johnson line, India did not claim the northern areas near Shahidulla and Khotan. From the Karakoram Pass (which is not under dispute), the Indian claim line extends northeast of the Karakoram Mountains north of the salt flats of the Aksai Chin, to set a boundary at the Kunlun Mountains, and incorporating part of the Karakash River and Yarkand River watersheds. From there, it runs east along the Kunlun Mountains, before turning southwest through the Aksai Chin salt flats, through the Karakoram Mountains, and then to Pangong Lake.[8]
On 1 July 1954 Prime Minister Nehru wrote a memo directing that the maps of India be revised to show definite boundaries on all frontiers. Up to this point, the boundary in the Aksai Chin sector, based on the Johnson Line, had been described as "undemarcated."[17]
Trans Karakoram Tract
editThe Johnson Line is not used west of the Karakoram Pass, where China adjoins Pakistan-administered Gilgit–Baltistan. On 13 October 1962, China and Pakistan began negotiations over the boundary west of the Karakoram Pass. In 1963, the two countries settled their boundaries largely on the basis of the Macartney-MacDonald Line, which left the Trans Karakoram Tract approximately 5,180 km2 (2,000 sq mi) to 5,300 km2 (2,000 sq mi) in China, although the agreement provided for renegotiation in the event of a settlement of the Kashmir conflict. India does not recognise that Pakistan and China have a common border, and claims the tract as part of the domains of the pre-1947 state of Kashmir and Jammu. However, India's claim line in that area does not extend as far north of the Karakoram Mountains as the Johnson Line. China and India still have disputes on these borders.[8]
The McMahon Line
editBritish India annexed Assam in northeastern India in 1826, by Treaty of Yandabo at the conclusion of the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). After subsequent Anglo-Burmese Wars, the whole of Burma was annexed giving the British a border with China's Yunan province.
In 1913–14, representatives of Great Britain, China, and Tibet attended a conference in Simla, India and drew up an agreement concerning Tibet's status and borders. The McMahon Line, a proposed boundary between Tibet and India for the eastern sector, was drawn by British negotiator Henry McMahon on a map attached to the agreement. All three representatives initialled the agreement, but Beijing soon objected to the proposed Sino-Tibet boundary and repudiated the agreement, refusing to sign the final, more detailed map. After approving a note which stated that China could not enjoy rights under the agreement unless she ratified it, the British and Tibetan negotiators signed the Simla Convention and more detailed map as a bilateral accord. Neville Maxwell states that McMahon had been instructed not to sign bilaterally with Tibetans if China refused, but he did so without the Chinese representative present and then kept the declaration secret.[8]
V. K. Singh argues that the basis of these boundaries, accepted by British India and Tibet, was that the historical boundaries of India were the Himalayas and the areas south of the Himalayas were traditionally Indian and associated with India. The high watershed of the Himalayas was proposed as the border between India and its northern neighbours. India's government held the view that the Himalayas were the ancient boundaries of the Indian subcontinent and thus should be the modern boundaries of British India and later the Republic of India.[25]
Chinese boundary markers, including one set up by the newly created Chinese Republic, stood near Walong until January 1914, when T. O'Callaghan, an assistant administrator of North East Frontier Agency (NEFA)'s eastern sector, relocated them north to locations closer to the McMahon Line (albeit still South of the Line). He then went to Rima, met with Tibetan officials, and saw no Chinese influence in the area.[citation needed]
By signing the Simla Convention with Tibet, the British had violated the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, in which both parties were not to negotiate with Tibet, "except through the intermediary of the Chinese Government", as well as the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906, which bound the British government "not to annex Tibetan territory."[26] Because of doubts concerning the legal status of the accord, the British did not put the McMahon Line on their maps until 1937, nor did they publish the Simla Convention in the treaty record until 1938. Rejecting Tibet's 1913 declaration of independence, China argued that the Simla Convention and McMahon Line were illegal and that Tibetan government was merely a local government without treaty-making powers.[8]
The British records show that the Tibetan government's acceptance of the new border in 1914 was conditional on China accepting the Simla Convention. Since the British were not able to get an acceptance from China, Tibetans considered the McMahon line invalid.[27] Tibetan officials continued to administer Tawang and refused to concede territory during negotiations in 1938. The governor of Assam asserted that Tawang was "undoubtedly British" but noted that it was "controlled by Tibet, and none of its inhabitants have any idea that they are not Tibetan." During World War II, with India's east threatened by Japanese troops and with the threat of Chinese expansionism, British troops secured Tawang for extra defence.[citation needed]
China's claim on areas south of the McMahon Line, encompassed in the NEFA, were based on the traditional boundaries. India believes that the boundaries China proposed in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh have no written basis and no documentation of acceptance by anyone apart from China. The Indian government has argued that China claims the territory on the basis that it was under Chinese imperial control in the past,[25] while the Chinese government argues that India claims the territory on the basis that it was under British imperial control in the past.[28] The last Qing emperor's 1912 edict of abdication authorised its succeeding republican government to form a union of "five peoples, namely, Manchus, Han Chinese, Mongols, Muslims, and Tibetans together with their territory in its integrity."[29] However, the practice that India does not place a claim to the regions which previously had the presence of the Mauryan Empire and Chola Dynasty, but which were heavily influenced by Indian culture, further complicates the issue.[25]
India's claim line in the eastern sector follows its interpretation of the McMahon Line. The line drawn by McMahon on the detailed 24–25 March 1914 Simla Treaty maps clearly starts at 27°45’40"N, a trijunction between Bhutan, China, and India, and from there, extends eastwards.[8] Most of the fighting in the eastern sector before the start of the war would take place immediately north of this line.[30] However, India claimed that the intent of the treaty was to follow the main watershed ridge divide of the Himalayas based on memos from McMahon and the fact that over 90% of the McMahon Line does in fact follow the main watershed ridge divide of the Himalayas. They claimed that territory south of the high ridges here near Bhutan (as elsewhere along most of the McMahon Line) should be Indian territory and north of the high ridges should be Chinese territory. In the Indian claim, the two armies would be separated from each other by the highest mountains in the world.
During and after the 1950s, when India began patrolling this area and mapping in greater detail, they confirmed what the 1914 Simla agreement map depicted: six river crossings that interrupted the main Himalayan watershed ridge. At the westernmost location near Bhutan north of Tawang, they modified their maps to extend their claim line northwards to include features such as Thag La ridge, Longju, and Khinzemane as Indian territory.[8] Thus, the Indian version of the McMahon Line moves the Bhutan-China-India trijunction north to 27°51’30"N from 27°45’40"N.[8] India would claim that the treaty map ran along features such as Thag La ridge, though the actual treaty map itself is topographically vague (as the treaty was not accompanied with demarcation) in places, shows a straight line (not a watershed ridge) near Bhutan and near Thag La, and the treaty includes no verbal description of geographic features nor description of the highest ridges.[8][31]
Sikkim
editThe Nathu La and Cho La clashes were a series of military clashes in 1967 between India and China alongside the border of the Himalayan Kingdom of Sikkim, then an Indian protectorate. The end of the conflicts saw a Chinese military withdrawal from Sikkim.
In 1975, the Sikkimese monarchy held a referendum, in which the Sikkemese voted overwhelmingly in favour of joining India.[32][33] At the time China protested and rejected it as illegal. The Sino-Indian Memorandum of 2003 was hailed as a de facto Chinese acceptance of the annexation.[34] China published a map showing Sikkim as a part of India and the Foreign Ministry deleted it from the list of China's "border countries and regions".[34] However, the Sikkim-China border's northernmost point, "The Finger", continues to be the subject of dispute and military activity.[35]
Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao said in 2005 that "Sikkim is no longer the problem between China and India."[36]
Boundary disputes
edit1947–1962
editDuring the 1950s, the People's Republic of China built a 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) road connecting Xinjiang and western Tibet, of which 179 kilometres (111 mi) ran south of the Johnson Line through the Aksai Chin region claimed by India.[8] Aksai Chin was easily accessible from China, but for the Indians on the south side of the Karakoram, the mountain range proved to be a complication in their access to Aksai Chin.[8] The Indians did not learn of the existence of the road until 1957, which was confirmed when the road was shown in Chinese maps published in 1958.[37]
The Indian position, as argued by prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, was that the Aksai Chin was "part of the Ladakh region of India for centuries".[8]
The Chinese premier Zhou Enlai argued that the western border had never been delimited, that the Macartney-MacDonald Line, which left part of Aksai Chin within Chinese borders was the only line ever proposed to a Chinese government. He also claimed that Aksai Chin was already under Chinese jurisdiction, and that negotiations should take into account the status quo.[8]
In 1960, Nehru and Zhou Enlai agreed to hold discussions between officials from India and China for examining the historical, political and administrative basis of the boundary dispute.[21] The two sides disagreed on the major watershed that defined the boundary in the western sector.[21]: 96 The Chinese statements with respect to their border claims often misrepresented the cited sources.[38]
1967 Nathu La and Cho La clashes
editThe Nathu La and Cho La clashes were a series of military clashes in 1967, between India and China alongside the border of the Himalayan Kingdom of Sikkim, then an Indian protectorate.[39][40]
The Nathu La clashes started on 11 September 1967, when the People's Liberation Army (PLA) launched an attack on Indian posts at Nathu La, and lasted till 15 September 1967. In October 1967, another military duel took place at Cho La and ended on the same day.[41]
According to independent sources[which?], the Indian forces achieved "decisive tactical advantage" and defeated the Chinese forces in these clashes. Many PLA fortifications at Nathu La were said to be destroyed, where the Indian troops drove back the attacking Chinese forces.[42]
1987 Sino Indian skirmish
editThe 1987 Sino-Indian skirmish was the third military conflict between the Chinese People's Liberation Army Ground Force and Indian Army that occurred at the Sumdorong Chu Valley, with the previous one taking place 20 years earlier.[43]
"1968–2017"
editOn 20 October 1975, 4 Indian soldiers were killed at Tulung La in Arunachal Pradesh.[44][45] According to the official statement by the Indian government, a patrol of the Assam Rifles comprising a non-commissioned officer (NCO) and four other soldiers was ambushed by about 40 Chinese soldiers while in an area well within Indian territory, and which had been regularly patrolled for years without incident. Four members of the patrol unit were initially listed as missing before confirmation via diplomatic channels they had been killed by the Chinese troops; their bodies were later returned. The Indian government registered a strong protest with the Chinese.[46]
In 2006, the Chinese ambassador to India claimed that all of Arunachal Pradesh is Chinese territory[47] amidst a military buildup.[48] At the time, both countries claimed incursions as much as a kilometre at the northern tip of Sikkim.[35] In 2009, India announced it would deploy additional military forces along the border.[49] In 2014, India proposed China should acknowledge a "One India" policy to resolve the border dispute.[50][51]
The reactions of Indian officials to these successive incursions have also been to a pattern:
- Suppress information
- Deny
Who is misled when information is suppressed? […] Not the Chinese— […] Not other countries, be they the US or Vietnam [….] The people who are lulled are the people of India. And the object of lulling them is straightforward—not just that they should not come to think that their government has been negligent, but that they should not pressurize the government into doing anything more than what it is doing.
Arun Shourie, Self-Deception: India's China Policies, 2013[52]
In April 2013 India claimed, referencing their own perception[53] of the Line of Actual Control (LAC) location, that Chinese troops had established a camp in the Daulat Beg Oldi sector, 10 km (6.2 mi) on their side of the Line of Actual Control. This figure was later revised to a 19 km (12 mi) claim. According to Indian media, the incursion included Chinese military helicopters entering Indian airspace to drop supplies to the troops. However, Chinese officials denied any trespassing having taken place.[54][55] Soldiers from both countries briefly set up camps on the ill-defined frontier facing each other, but the tension was defused when both sides pulled back soldiers in early May.[56] In September 2014, India and China had a standoff at the LAC, when Indian workers began constructing a canal in the border village of Demchok, Ladakh, and Chinese civilians protested with the army's support. It ended after about three weeks, when both sides agreed to withdraw troops.[57] The Indian army claimed that the Chinese military had set up a camp 3 km (1.9 mi) inside territory claimed by India.[58] According to scholar Harsh V. Pant, China gains territory with every incursion.[59]
In September 2015, Chinese and Indian troops faced off in the Burtse region of northern Ladakh after Indian troops dismantled a disputed watchtower the Chinese were building close to the mutually agreed patrolling line.[60]
2017 Doklam military standoff
editGraphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
In June, a military standoff occurred between India and China in the disputed territory of Doklam, near the Doka La pass. On 16 June 2017, the Chinese brought heavy road building equipment to the Doklam region and began constructing a road in the disputed area.[63] Previously, China had built a dirt road terminating at Doka La where Indian troops were stationed.[63] They would conduct foot patrol from this point up till the Royal Bhutanese Army (RBA) post at Jampheri Ridge.[63] The dispute that ensued post 16 June stemmed from the fact that the Chinese had begun building a road below Doka La, in what India and Bhutan claim to be disputed territory.[63] This resulted in Indian intervention of China's road construction on 18 June, two days after construction began. Bhutan claims that the Chinese have violated the written agreements between the two countries that were drawn up in 1988 and 1998 after extensive rounds of talks.[64] The agreements drawn state that status quo must be maintained in the Doklam area as of before March 1959.[64] It is these agreements that China has violated by constructing a road below Doka La. A series of statements from each countries' respective External Affairs ministries were issued defending each countries' actions. Due to the ambiguity of earlier rounds of border talks beginning from the 1890 Anglo-Chinese Convention that was signed in Kolkata on 17 March 1890, each country refers to different agreements drawn when trying to defend its position on the border dispute.[63][64] Following the incursion, on 28 June, the Chinese military claimed that India had blocked the construction of a road that was taking place in China's sovereign territory.[65] On 30 June, India's Foreign Ministry claimed that China's road construction in violation of the status quo had security implications for India.[66] Following this, on 5 July, Bhutan issued a demarche asking China to restore the status quo as of before 16 June.[67] Throughout July and August, the Doklam issue remained unresolved. On 28 August, India issued a statement saying that both countries have agreed to "expeditious disengagement" in the Doklam region.[65]
In 2019, India and China decided to coordinate border patrolling at one disputed point along the LAC.[68]
2020–2022 skirmishes
editIn June 2020, Indian and Chinese troops engaged in a brawl in the Galwan River valley which reportedly led to the deaths of 20 Indian soldiers. International media claimed 40+ Chinese soldiers had been killed, but this number has not been confirmed by Chinese authorities.[69][70]
Timeline
editBoundary discussions
editOne of the first set of formal talks between China and India on the border were following Zhou Enlai's visit to India in 19–25 April 1960.[71] Following this there were a further three sessions of talks, the "Official's" talks, between— 15 June-6 July 1960; 15 August-24 September 1960; and 7 November-12 December 1960.[71] These discussions produced the 'Report of the Officials on the boundary question'.[72]
Boundary discussions have covered micro and macro issues of the dispute. At a local level, localised disputes and related events such as de-engagement and de-escalation are tackled. Wider overarching issues include discussion related to a package settlement versus sector-wise,[73] clarification of the LAC and border and accordingly the exchange of maps,[74] and delinking or linking the boundary dispute to other bilateral ties.[75]
Package proposal
editChina made the so-called "package" offer in 1960, which again came to the table in 1980–85. As explained by former foreign secretary Shyam Saran, China "would be prepared to accept an alignment in the Eastern Sector, in general conforming to the McMahon Line, but India would have to concede Aksai Chin to China in the Western Sector [...] For the Central Sector, the differences were regarded as relatively minor and manageable."[76] In other words, China "offered to hold 26% of the disputed land".[77]
In 1985 China made modifications to the package— "the Indian side would have to make significant and meaningful concessions in the Eastern Sector... for which China would make corresponding but undefined concessions in the Western Sector". Additionally, Tawang was brought up "as indispensable to any boundary settlement". These changes in the package proposal by China remained till at least 2015.[76]
Linking border and other bilateral relations
editDuring the first round of renewed talks between China and India in December 1981, China suggested maintaining the status quo on the border question, and in the meantime other relations could be normalized.[78] By the fourth round in October 1983 the Indian negotiators agreed to normalization in other areas.[79] This aspect of linking or de-linking border relations resurfaced in the 2020–2021 China–India skirmishes.[80]
Legal positions
editIn the 1980s, during the beginning of talks between the two countries, India made it clear that it would not discuss the legal position of either side as it had already been documented in the 1960 Official's report.[81]
Political initiatives
editDuring the eighth round of talks in November, 1987, in the background of the Sumdorong Chu standoff, the negotiators on both sides came to a conclusion that apart from these bureaucratic level talks, a political move was needed.[82]
Dispute management and resolution mechanism
editIndian spokesperson for the Ministry of External Affairs stated in May 2020 that there were enough bilateral mechanisms to solve border disputes diplomatically.[83][84][85][86] However, some critics say that these agreements are "deeply flawed".[87]
Bilateral mechanisms
editBodies/mechanisms have been formed as per bilateral agreements to consult on the boundary question:
Dispute resolution mechanism name | Abbr. | Date proposed |
Formed on/via | First round | Last round | Total rounds |
Status | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Date | Statement/Agreement | |||||||
India-China Joint Working Group on the boundary question | JWG | - | 1988[5] | Joint Press Communique | 30 June-4 July 1989[71] | - | - | - |
India-China Diplomatic and Military Expert Group | EG | - | 7 September 1993[5] | Border Peace and Tranquility Agreement | 2-4 February 1994[88] | - | - | - |
Special Representatives mechanism on the boundary question | SR/SRM | 1979 | 23 June 2003[6] | Declaration on Principles for Relations and Comprehensive Cooperation | 26 October 2003[89] | 21 December 2019[90] | 22 | Functional |
Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination on India-China Border Affairs | WMCC | 2010 | 17 January 2012[7] | Agreement on the Establishment of a Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination | 6 March 2012[91] | 18 December 2020[92] | 20 | Functional |
Other: Border Personnel Meeting points, Hotlines (6 hotlines as of July 2021),[93] normal diplomatic channels |
Following the 1962 boundary war, official border talks started in December 1981.[71] There were eight rounds of these talks, with the eight round being in 1987.[71] In 1988, through a joint press communique, the border talks were formalized as the 'India-China Joint Working Group on the Boundary Question' (JWG). The JWG met 15 times, the final meeting being in 2005. In 2003 the Special Representatives Mechanism (SRM) was set up as per the 'Declaration on Principles for Relations and Comprehensive Cooperation'.[5]
In April 2005 another agreement mentioned that the JWG, the "India-China Diplomatic and Military Expert Group", and the "Special Representatives on the boundary question" would carry on with their work and consultations.[6] Other than agreements directly related to the border, there have been numerous agreements that worked on other aspects of the bilateral relations such as a memorandum of understanding on military relations that was signed in 2006, that in turn affected the border situation.[94][95]
Bilateral agreements
edit- India China border related agreements
- 1988: India-China Joint Working Group on the boundary question
- Trade
- 1991: Memorandum on the Resumption of Border Trade
- 1992: Protocol on Entry and Exit Procedures for Border Trade
- 2003: Memorandum on Expanding Border Trade
- Confidence building measures
- 1993: Border Peace and Tranquility Agreement, 1993
- 1996: Agreement on Military Confidence Building Measures
- 2005: Protocol for the Implementation of Military Confidence Building Measures
- Political measures
- 2003: Declaration on Principles for Relations and Comprehensive Cooperation
- 2005: Agreement on the Political Parameters and Guiding Principles for the Settlement of the India-China Boundary Question
- 2012: Agreement on the Establishment of a Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination on India-China Border Affairs
- 2013: Border Defence Cooperation Agreement
- 2020: 5 point statement
Bilateral military communication channels
editBorder meeting points
editThere are five Border Personnel Meeting points (BPM) for holding rounds of dispute resolution talks among the military personnel with a defined escalation path, such as first between colonels, then between brigadiers, and finally between major generals.[96][97] Of these five BPM, two are in the Indian Union Territory of Ladakh or India's western (northern) sector corresponding to China's Southern Xinxiang Military District, one in Sikkim and two in Arunachal Pradesh in India's central and eastern sectors corresponding to China's Tibet Military District.
Hotlines
editNegotiations for an inter-military hotline started in 2012. It was initially planned for communication between India's Eastern Command and PLA's Chengdu Military Region Command. Negotiations for Director General of Military Operations (DGMOs) level hotline continued in 2013. In 2014 a hotline was set up between the DGMOs of both countries.[98] In 2021 both countries agreed to set up a hotline between their foreign ministers.[99] By 31 July 2021, six hotlines had been set up between commanders; 2 in Ladakh, 2 in Sikkim and 2 in Arunachal Pradesh.[93]
Corps Commander Level Meetings
edit'Corps Commander Level Meetings' during the 2020–2021 China–India skirmishes allowed both sides to exchange perspectives and was seen as an important way to keep communication open.[100][101] The length of these meetings varied from 9 hours[102] to over 12 hours.[103] Apart from the military, the chief of the Indo-Tibetan Border Police and a Ministry of External Affairs representative were also present.[104][105]
Geostrategic military aspects
editCommands and troops deployment
edit
Chinese Military has an integrated Western Theater Command (WTC) across the whole LAC with India. Western Theater Command also covers provinces of Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai and Chongqing. China has 5 integrated theater commands.[106]
Indian Military has divided the LAC into 3 sectors - the northern sector (some times also called western sector) across Ladakh and the Chinese-held Aksai Chin, the central sector across Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand states, and the eastern sector across Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh states.[107][108] Similarly, Indian Airforce has Prayagraj-based Western Air Command, Delhi-based Central Air Command, and Shillong-based Eastern Air Command to cover the LAC.[107] India, whose sole integrated command is Andaman and Nicobar Command, is still going through integration of its various geography and services based commands as of 2020.[109][110]
The Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs (BCSIA) carried out an independent analysis of troops deployment in 2020. Indian Army strike forces have 225,000 soldiers near its border, all of whom are focused on China. Numbers include 34,000 in the Northern Command, 15,500 in the Central Command, and 175,500 troops in the Eastern Command, including 3,000 soldiers of T-72 tank brigade in Ladakh and 1,000 soldiers of BrahMos cruise missile regiment in Arunachal Pradesh. Of the 200,000 to 230,000 ground forces under China's Western Theater Command, only 110,000 are stationed on its border, while the rest are deployed on China's border with Russia in the North, inside Tibet and Xinjiang, or deployed elsewhere inside Western China. Of the Chinese troops stationed on the India border, mainly belonging to the 76th Group Army and 77th Group Army, 70,000 are deployed in Southern Xinjiang Military District (corresponding to India's northern or western sector in Ladakh), and 40,000 are deployed in Tibet Military District (corresponding to India's central and eastern sector along with the rest of the LAC from Himachal Pradesh to Arunachal Pradesh). The remaining forces would be not be available for deployment to the India border in the case of a wider conflict. This creates a disparity in terms of India's larger number of conventional troops (225,000) focused on the China border, compared to the smaller number of Chinese troops (90,000-120,000) focused on the Indian border, the majority of whom are deployed far from the Indian border while Indian troops are deployed closer. In the case of conflict, while Indian troops are already in position on or near the border, China will have to mobilise troops mainly from Xinjiang and from other Western Theater Command troops inside China's interior.[107]
Command deployment is as follows:[108]
India | China | |
---|---|---|
Indian Army Sector / Commands | Indian Airforce | |
Northern (also called "Western")[107] (Ladakh) |
Western Air Command (Delhi) |
Western Theater Command (Xinjiang and Tibet) |
Central (Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand) |
Central Air Command (Prayagraj) | |
Eastern (Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh) |
Eastern Air Command (Shillong) |
Village construction
editIn 2024, The New York Times reported that, according to satellite imagery, China had constructed villages along and inside of disputed territory within Arunachal Pradesh.[111] Chinese individuals, called "border guardians," received annual subsidies to relocate to newly built villages and paid to conduct border patrols.[111]
List of disputed areas
editList of disputed areas,[108] each with several hundred to several thousand km2 area, is as follows:
100miles
100miles
SN | Disputed area / sector (alternate names) |
Chinese Province | Indian State/UT | Operational control | Incidences[spelling?] / comment |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Trans-Karakoram Tract (Shaksgam) | Xinjiang | Ladakh | China | Conditionally ceded by Pakistan to China subject to resolution with India. India-controlled Indira Col West lies on its southern border at India-Pakistan-China westernmost "operational" trijunction. |
2 | Aksai Chin | Xinjiang and Tibet | Ladakh | China | Served by Daulat Beg Oldi AGL,[115] and Darbuk–Shyok–DBO Road. Padum AGL[115] and Leh Airport are 2nd line of defence. China-controlled Shaksgam and Aksai Chin border the India-controlled Siachen area disputed by Pakistan. See also 2013 Daulat Beg Oldi Incident, 2020 China–India skirmishes, Depsang Plains, Galwan, Pangong Tso, Hot Springs, Kongka Pass. Shyok as hot spots in this sector. Other contested locations include Samar Lungpa.[116] |
3 | Demchok / Dêmqog (Demchok sector) | Tibet | Ladakh | India / China | Served by Fukche AGL.[115] Padum AGL[115] and Leh Airport are 2nd line of defence. |
4 | Chumar North | Tibet | Ladakh | India | Served by Nyoma AGL.[115] Chumar sector has 2 noncontiguous areas, north and south. India has road up to the claimed border. China does not have a road up to border. Both India and China are also served by helipads. |
5 | Chumar South | Tibet | Ladakh | India | |
6 | Kaurik (Sumdo) |
Tibet | Himachal Pradesh | India | Served by dual use Shimla Airport and Kullu-Manali Airport.[117] Kibber-Rangrik AGL has been surveyed,[117] which Will be closest AGL to Chumar, Kaurik, and Tashigang-Shipki La disputed area, but as of July 2020 no progress has been made. Himachal Pradesh has a 250 km (160 mi) border with China.[117] India has road up to the claimed border at Bakiala. |
7 | Tashigang-Shipki La (Khab and Namgia) |
Tibet | Himachal Pradesh | India | |
8 | Jadh Ganga Valley (also Mana Pass) |
Tibet | Uttrakhand[118] | India | The valley of Jadh Ganga is claimed by China. The Indians control the whole extent of Jadh Ganga. Some of the villages in the area are Pulam Sumda, Sang, Jadhang, Nelang and Tirpani, which all lie in the valley of the Jadh Ganga. |
9 | Bara Hoti | Tibet | Uttrakhand[118] | India | Chinyalisaur Airport primarily and Pithoragarh Airport secondarily serve Bara Hoti and Nelang-Pulam Sumda sectors as AGLs. ITBP has 42 BoPs (border outposts) in Bara Hoti sector and Mana Pass area (Pulam Sumda sector).[118] Uttrakhand has a 350 km (220 mi) border with China.[118] India is building roads in this sector,[119][120] which will be completed by December 2020.[121][122] |
10 | Part of Arunachal Pradesh (especially Tawang) | Tibet | Arunachal Pradesh | India | Tawang Air Force Station and AGLs at Aalo, Mechuka, Pasighat, Tuting, Vijoynagar, Walong and Ziro serve this sector.[123] Most of India-controlled Arunachal Pradesh is also claimed by China, especially Tawang. See also 1987 Sino-Indian skirmish at Tawang. |
Bhutan's Doklam area on Sikkim-China-Bhutan tri-junction, disputed by China in which Bhutan is assisted by India, has been kept out of this list, see also 2017 China–India border standoff at Doklam and Nathu La and Cho La clashes in Sikkim. India and China will hold the 9th round of military commander level talks on 24 January 2021, The talks will be held in Moldo opposite to the Chushul sector in India.[124]
See also
edit- Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China
- China containment policy
- Chinese salami slicing strategy
- Himalayan Rim
- India-China Border Roads
- List of disputed territories of China
- List of disputed territories of India
- List of territorial disputes
- McMahon Line
- Sino-Indian relations
- Sino-Indian War
References
edit- ^ Aakash Hassan, Hannah Ellis-Petersen, 'Our pastures have been taken': Indians rue China's Himalayan land grab Archived 17 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 3 July 2020.
- ^ Hoffmann (1990), p. 19.
- ^ Ramachandran, Sudha (15 July 2020). "Beijing Asserts a More Aggressive Posture in Its Border Dispute with India". Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ^ Goldman, Russell (17 June 2020). "India-China Border Dispute: A Conflict Explained". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
- ^ a b c d Shankar, Mahesh (3 September 2018). "2: Territory and the China-India Competition". In Paul, T. V. (ed.). The China-India Rivalry in the Globalization Era. Georgetown University Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-1-62616-600-4. Archived from the original on 13 August 2024. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
- ^ a b c "Agreement on the Political Parameters and Guiding Principles for the Settlement of the India-China (April 11, 2005)". mea.gov.in. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
- ^ a b "India, China to set up working mechanism on border management". The Hindu. 17 January 2012. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 5 October 2020. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Maxwell (1970)
- ^ a b The Sino-Indian Border Disputes, by Alfred P. Rubin, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 9, No. 1. (Jan. 1960), pp. 96–125. JSTOR 756256.
- ^ Guruswamy, Mohan (2006). Emerging Trends in India-China Relations. India: Hope India Publications. p. 222. ISBN 978-81-7871-101-0. Archived from the original on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
- ^ a b c Mohan Guruswamy, Mohan, "The Great India-China Game", Rediff, 23 June 2003. Archived 30 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Woodman (1970), p. 51.
- ^ Younghusband, Francis E. (1896). The Heart of a Continent. John Murray, London. Facsimile reprint: (2005) Elbiron Classics, pp. 223–224.
- ^ Grenard, Fernand (1904). Tibet: The Country and its Inhabitants. Fernand Grenard. Translated by A. Teixeira de Mattos. Originally published by Hutchison and Co., London. 1904. Reprint: Cosmo Publications. Delhi. 1974, pp. 28–30.
- ^ Woodman (1970), pp. 360–.
- ^ a b c Woodman (1970), pp. 73, 78
- ^ a b Noorani, A.G. (30 August 2003), "Fact of History", Frontline, vol. 26, no. 18, archived from the original on 2 October 2011
- ^ Woodman (1970), pp. 102: "The proposed boundary seems never to have been considered in the same form again until Alastair Lamb revived it in 1964".
- ^ a b Verma, Virendra Sahai (2006). "Sino-Indian Border Dispute at Aksai Chin - A Middle Path For Resolution" (PDF). Journal of Development Alternatives and Area Studies. 25 (3): 6–8. ISSN 1651-9728. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 October 2013.
- ^ Woodman (1970), pp. 79.
- ^ a b c Fisher, Rose & Huttenback (1963), p. 91
- ^ Calvin, James Barnard (April 1984). "The China-India Border War". Marine Corps Command and Staff College.
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|url=
(help) - ^ Orton, A. India's Borderland Disputes: China, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. Epitome Books. p. 24. ISBN 978-93-80297-25-5. Archived from the original on 13 August 2024. Retrieved 25 February 2024.
- ^ Raghavan (2010), p. 235.
- ^ a b c V. K. Singh, Resolving the boundary dispute, india-seminar.com. Archived 18 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Karunakar Gupta. The McMahon Line 1911–45: The British Legacy, The China Quarterly, No. 47. (Jul. – Sep. 1971), pp. 521–545. JSTOR 652324
- ^ Shakya, Tsering (1999). The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947. Columbia University Press. pp. 279–. ISBN 978-0-231-11814-9. Archived from the original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
- ^ Arthur A. Stahnke. "The Place of International Law in Chinese Strategy and Tactics: The Case of the Sino-Indian Boundary Dispute", The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. 30, No. 1, Nov 1970. pg. 95–119
- ^ Qing Dynasty Edict of Abdication, translated by Bertram Lenox Putnam Weale, The Fight for the Republic in China, London: Hurst & Blackett, Ltd. Paternoster House, E.C. 1918. – Emphasis added, "Muslims" rendered as "Mohammedans" in original translation
- ^ A.G. Noorani (29 August 2003). "Perseverance in peace process". Frontline. Archived from the original on 26 March 2005.
- ^ Murty, T. S.; Maxwell, Neville (April–June 1971). "Tawang and "The Un-Negotiated Dispute"". The China Quarterly. 46 (46): 357–362. doi:10.1017/S0305741000010754. JSTOR 652270. S2CID 154868693.
- ^ "Sikkim (Indien), 14. April 1975 : Abschaffung der Monarchie -- [in German]". www.sudd.ch. 14 April 1975. Archived from the original on 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Sikkim Votes to End Monarchy, Merge With India". The New York Times. 16 April 1975. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017.
- ^ a b D. S. Rajan (10 June 2008). "China: An internal Account of Startling Inside Story of Sino-Indian Border Talks". South Asia Analysis Group. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ a b Sudha Ramachandran (27 June 2008). "China toys with India's border". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 5 September 2008.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Scott, David (2011). Handbook of India's International Relations. Routledge. p. 80. ISBN 9781136811319.
- ^ * Garver, John W. (2006), "China's Decision for War with India in 1962" (PDF), in Ross, Robert S. (ed.), New Directions in the Study of China's Foreign Policy, Stanford University Press, ISBN 978-0-8047-5363-0, archived from the original on 28 August 2017
- ^ Fisher, Rose & Huttenback (1963), p. 99: "... suffice it to say here that an essential part of our narrative will document our conclusion that the case the Chinese presented was a shoddy piece of work, betraying—if only to those in a position to consult the sources cited—a fundamental contempt for evidence.".
- ^ Krishnan, Ananth (30 July 2017). "The last Sikkim stand-off: When India gave China a bloody nose in 1967". India Today. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- ^ Rana, Sonal (7 September 2018). "Know about the Nathu La and Cho La clashes of 1967 that inspired Paltan". The Statesman. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- ^ Sali (1998), p. 101\ .
- ^ Patranobis, Sutirtho (1 July 2017). "Lessons for India and China from 1967 Nathu La clash". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- ^ "1987中印边境冲突:印军最后时刻撤销攻击令 (1987 Sino-Indian skirmish military conflicts)". Archived from the original on 11 November 2009.
- ^ Krishnan, Ananth (14 June 2020). "Forgotten in fog of war, the last firing on the India-China border". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 30 December 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
- ^ Shukla, Srijan (16 June 2020). "1975 Arunachal ambush — the last time Indian soldiers died in clash with China at LAC". ThePrint. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
- ^ "Spokesman's Statement" (PDF). Press Information Bureau of India - Archive. 1 November 1975. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
- ^ "Arunachal Pradesh is our territory": Chinese envoy Rediff India Abroad, 14 November 2006. Archived 8 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Subir Bhaumik, "India to deploy 36,000 extra troops on Chinese border", BBC, 23 November 2010. Archived 2 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The China-India Border Brawl", The Wall Street Journal, 24 June 2009, archived from the original on 23 September 2011
- ^ 何, 宏儒 (12 June 2014). "外長會 印向陸提一個印度政策". 中央通訊社. 新德里. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
- ^ "印度外長敦促中國重申「一個印度」政策". BBC 中文网. 9 September 2014. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
- ^ Shourie, Arun (1 September 2013). "1". Self-Deception: India's China Policies. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-93-5116-094-6. Archived from the original on 28 December 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
- ^ "China's Ladakh Incursion Well-planned". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017.
- ^ "India sends out doves, China sends in chopper", Hindustan Times, archived from the original on 27 May 2013
- ^ "India, China caught in a bitter face-off", Hindustan Times, archived from the original on 26 May 2013
- ^ "India and China 'pull back troops' in disputed border area". BBC News. 6 May 2013. Archived from the original on 13 May 2015. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
- ^ Kumar, Hari (26 September 2014a). "India and China Step Back From Standoff in Kashmir". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 July 2016.
- ^ "Chinese and Indian troops in Himalayan standoff", Reuters, 23 September 2014, archived from the original on 11 September 2016
- ^ "Why border stand-offs between India and China are increasing", BBC News, 26 September 2014, archived from the original on 12 September 2016
- ^ "India-China troops face-off near Line of Actual Control in Ladakh", The Economic Times, 13 July 2018, archived from the original on 15 September 2015
- ^ "Chinese troops focus on 4 LAC locations, test new areas in Ladakh". 23 May 2020. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
- ^ "Big surge in Chinese transgressions, most of them in Ladakh". 22 May 2020. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
- ^ a b c d e Manoj Joshi, Doklam: To Start at the Very Beginning Archived 30 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c Manoj Joshi, Doklam, Gipmochi, Gyemochen: It's Hard Making Cartographic Sense of a Geopolitical Quagmire Archived 4 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b HT Correspondent Blow by blow: A timeline of India, China face-off over Doklam Archived 7 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ A Staff Writer Doklam standoff ends: A timeline of events over the past 2 months Archived 2 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Shishir Gupta, Bhutan issues demarche to Beijing, protests over India-China border row Archived 2 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China 2020: Annual Report to Congress" (PDF). 30 January 2021. Office of the Secretary of Defense. p. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 November 2022.
- ^ Gettleman, Jeffrey; Kumar, Hari; Yasir, Sameer (16 June 2020). "3 Indian Soldiers Killed in First Deadly Clash on Chinese Border in Decades". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 16 June 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
- ^ "Indian soldiers killed over 40 Chinese troops during Galwan Valley clashes, captured PLA Colonel". Zee News. 21 June 2020. Archived from the original on 21 June 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
- ^ a b c d e Westcott (2017), p. 314.
- ^ Patranobis, Sutirtho (21 December 2017). "India-China border talks and war: Here is how it all began". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
- ^ Sali (1998), p. 104.
- ^ "Agreement between India and China on Confidence-Building Measures in the Military Field along the Line of Actual Control in the India-China Border Areas". peacemaker.un.org. 1996. Archived from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
- ^ "Keep border dispute & bilateral ties separate, China tells India". The Times of India. 5 August 2020. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
- ^ a b Saran, Shyam (12 May 2015). "An Out of the Box Solution to the India-China Boundary Dispute?". The Wire. Archived from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
- ^ Fravel, M. Taylor (October 2005). "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes". International Security. 30 (2): 56. doi:10.1162/016228805775124534. ISSN 0162-2889. S2CID 56347789.
China offered to hold 26% of the disputed land
- ^ Ganguly (1989), p. 1126.
- ^ Ganguly (1989), pp. 1127–1128.
- ^ "Keep border dispute & bilateral ties separate, China tells India". The Times of India. 5 August 2020. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
- ^ Ganguly (1989), p. 1127.
- ^ Ganguly (1989), p. 1131.
- ^ Gill, Prabhjote (29 May 2020). "India says there are five treaties to push the Chinese army behind the Line of Actual Control – while experts tell Modi to remain cautious". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 4 June 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
- ^ Chaudhury, Dipanjan Roy (29 May 2020). "India-China activate 5 pacts to defuse LAC tensions". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 29 May 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
- ^ "Agreement between the Government of the Republic of India and the Government of the People's Republic of China on the Political Parameters and Guiding Principles for the Settlement of the India-China Boundary Question". Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. 11 April 2005. Archived from the original on 3 July 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2020.
- ^ Sino-India relations including Doklam, Situation and Cooperation in International Organizations (2017-18) (PDF) (Report). Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
- ^ Sudarshan, V. (1 June 2020). "A phantom called the Line of Actual Control". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
- ^ Sali (1998), p. 126.
- ^ Westcott (2017), p. 316.
- ^ "22nd Meeting of Special Representatives of China and India Held in New Delhi (21 December 2019)". www.fmprc.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
- ^ Kumar (2014), p. 86.
- ^ "20th meeting of Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination on India-China Border Affairs (December 18, 2020)". www.mea.gov.in. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
- ^ a b Pandit, Rajat (1 August 2021). "India, China establish sixth hotline between ground commanders along LAC". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 1 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ Das, Rup Narayan (October 2010). "India-China Defence Cooperation and Military Engagement" (PDF). Journal of Defence Studies. 4 (4): 117. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 July 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
- ^ "Joint Statement of the Republic of India and the People's Republic of China". Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. 11 April 2005. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
- ^ Mitra, Devirupa (6 June 2020). "Ahead of Border Talks With China, India Still Unclear of Reason Behind Troops Stand-Off". The Wire. Archived from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
On Saturday, Indian and Chinese military officials of Lieutenant General-rank are likely to meet at a border personnel meeting (BPM)... The various BPM meetings – led first by colonels, then brigadiers and then finally over three rounds by major general-rank officers – have until now yielded no results.
- ^ Gupta, Shishir (5 June 2020). "Ahead of today's meet over Ladakh standoff, India signals a realistic approach". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 5 June 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
- ^ Mukherjee, Anit; Mohan, C. Raja (19 November 2015). India's Naval Strategy and Asian Security. Routledge. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-317-36134-3. Archived from the original on 13 August 2024. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
- ^ "India, China agree to set up hotline for sorting out issues". Tribune India. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
- ^ "11th Round of India-China Corps Commander Level Meeting". www.mea.gov.in. Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. 10 April 2021. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
The two sides had a detailed exchange of views for the resolution of the remaining issues...
- ^ Liu, Xuecheng (June 2021). "Putting the Border Dispute in Historical Context" (PDF). The Air Force Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs: Indo-Pacific Perspectives. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021 – via Air University (United States Air Force).
...mechanisms such as the China-India Corps Commander Level Meeting, which has played an important role in facilitating communication between the two sides.
- ^ Negi, Manjeet (31 July 2021). "Ladakh standoff: India, China end 12th Corps Commander-level talks after 9 hours". India Today. Archived from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ "Army commanders of India, China hold over 12-hour-long talks to ease Ladakh standoff". The Times of India. PTI. 21 September 2020. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ Philip, Snehesh Alex; Basu, Nayanima (22 September 2020). "India and China stick to demands, current ground positions in Ladakh could become status quo". ThePrint. Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ ANI (21 September 2020). "India, China to hold sixth Corps Commander-level talks today: Report". Business Standard India. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ "Eye on India, China raises Tibet military command rank | Central Tibetan Administration". tibet.net. Archived from the original on 7 November 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2016.
- ^ a b c d India-China War: US Study Explains Why Indian Air Force Could Outgun China In A Border Conflict Archived 27 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Eurasian Times, 24 July 2020.
- ^ a b c "Twisting India's Chicken's Neck". lowyinstitute.org. Archived from the original on 18 July 2020. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
- ^ Indian Army's new Integrated Battle Groups to be introduced in early 2020 Archived 14 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine, The Print, 26 November 2019.
- ^ news-analysis/theatre-command-in-india Theatre Command in India Archived 7 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, The Print, 4 May 2019.
- ^ a b Xiao, Muyi; Chang, Agnes (10 August 2024). "China's Great Wall of Villages". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 10 August 2024. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
- ^ a b Singh, Sushant (4 June 2020). "De-escalation process underway: 2 LAC flashpoints are not in list of identified areas still contested". The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ^ a b Gurung, Shaurya Karanbir (21 January 2018). "Indian Army focussing on locations along LAC where Doklam-like flashpoints could happen". Economic Times. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ^ Joshua, Anita. "Beijing now bullies Bhutan". The Telegraph. Kolkata. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ^ a b c d e India plans AGL strips Archived 7 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Deccan Herald, 2014.
- ^ Singh, Sushant (4 June 2020). "De-escalation process underway: 2 LAC flashpoints are not in list of identified areas still contested". The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2020.
- ^ a b c Himachal Pradesh: Demand for airstrip in Spiti area Archived 8 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Times of India, 17 July 2020.
- ^ a b c d Eyeing national security, Uttarakhand, ITBP to improve border infrastructure Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Hindustan Times, 18 July 2020.
- ^ "Joshimath-Malari highway inaugurated". www.projectstoday.com. 26 December 2019. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
- ^ "BRO officials asked to speed up pending road projects". Hindustan Times. 20 February 2018. Archived from the original on 21 June 2020. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
- ^ Singh, Vijaita (3 March 2018). "Govt. puts delayed road projects on Indo-China border on track". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
- ^ Singh, Jitendra Bahadur (17 June 2020). "India to accelerate construction of roads along Chinese border: Sources". India Today. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
- ^ IAF to have seven AGL in Arunachal Pradesh Archived 22 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Economic Times, 2018.
- ^ The Indian Hawk, Indian Defence News (24 January 2021). "India-China to hold 9th round of military commander level talks today". The Indian Hawk. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
Bibliography
- Fisher, Margaret W.; Rose, Leo E.; Huttenback, Robert A. (1963). Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh. Praeger – via archive.org.
- Ganguly, Sumit (December 1989). "The Sino-Indian Border Talks, 1981-1989: A View from New Delhi". Asian Survey. 29 (12): 1123–1135. doi:10.2307/2644760. hdl:2022/25945. JSTOR 2644760.
- Hoffmann, Steven A. (1990). India and the China Crisis. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06537-6.
- Kumar, Satish (2014). "2(ii): External Security Situation". In Kumar, Satish (ed.). India's National Security: Annual Review 2013. India: Routledge. ISBN 9781317324614.
- Maxwell, Neville (1970). India's China War. Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-394-47051-1. Also available on scribd Archived 1 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
- Raghavan, Srinath (2010), War and Peace in Modern India, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-1-137-00737-7
- Sali, M. L. (1998). India-China Border Dispute: A Case Study of the Eastern Sector. New Delhi: APH Publishing. ISBN 8170249643.
- Westcott, Stephen (2017). The Intractable Sino-Indian Border Dispute: A Theoretical and Historical Account (PDF) (Thesis). Murdoch University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2021.
- Woodman, Dorothy (1970). Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian, and Russian Rivalries. Praeger – via archive.org.
Further reading
edit- Chervin, Reed (2020). "'Cartographic Aggression': Media Politics, Propaganda, and the Sino-Indian Border Dispute". Journal of Cold War Studies. 22 (3): 225–247. doi:10.1162/jcws_a_00911. S2CID 221117342.
- Gardner, Kyle (2021). The Frontier Complex: Geopolitics and the Making of the India-China Border, 1846–1962. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108840590.
- Johny, Stanly (20 July 2019). "'The McMahon Line – A Century of Discord' review: The disputed frontier". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 18 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
- Noorani, A.G. (2010). India–China Boundary Problem 1846–1947: History and Diplomacy. Oxford University Press India. ISBN 9780199088393.
- Singh, J.J. (2019), The McMahon Line – A Century of Discord, HarperCollins Publishers India, ISBN 9789352777761, provides a detailed description of the border dispute between India and China.