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Sick man of Europe

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"Sick man of Europe" is a label given to a state located in Europe that is experiencing economic difficulties, social unrest or impoverishment. It is most famously used to refer to the Ottoman Empire whilst they were in a state of decline.

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Caricature from Punch, dated June 6, 1896. It shows Sultan Abdul Hamid II in front of a poster that announces the reorganization of the Ottoman Empire. The empire's value is estimated at £5 million (£695 million in 2023[1]). Russia, France and Britain are listed as the directors of the reorganisation. The caricature satirized the impoverished state of the Ottoman economy at the time.

Emperor Nicholas I of the Russian Empire is considered to be the first to use the term "Sick Man" to describe the Ottoman Empire in the mid-19th century.[2][3] The characterization existed during the "Eastern question" in diplomatic history, which also referred to the decline of the Ottoman Empire in terms of the balance of power in Europe.[4] After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century, the term has been applied to other states. In modern usage, the term has faced criticism due to its origins and arguable over-usage.[2]

Throughout the 1960s to the 1980s, the term was also most notably used for the United Kingdom when it lost its superpower status as the Empire crumbled and its home islands experienced significant deindustrialization, coupled with high inflation and industrial unrest – such as the Winter of Discontent – including having to seek loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Since the mid-2010s and into the 2020s, the term being used for Britain began to see a resurgence after Brexit, a cost-of-living crisis and industrial disputes and strikes becoming more commonplace.[5]

As of 2024, Germany is most commonly referred to as the 'Sick Man of Europe' due to its consistently stagnant economy and in particular, its industrial base, since the Covid-19 pandemic[6] and the loss of access to inexpensive energy resulting from the Nord Stream pipelines sabotage.[7] This has been demonstrated by Germany having the lowest GDP growth amongst the large G7 industrialised economies compared to the pre-pandemic level.[8]

Origin

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Early usage

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Russian Tsar Nicholas I (r. 1825–1855), seeking to expand into parts of the Ottoman Empire during the Eastern Question, had described Turkey as "sick" or "sick man" during his meeting with Austrian chancellor Metternich (in office 1809–1848) in Münchengrätz, two months after the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi in September 1833. In his own writing, Metternich said he had argued against this characterization.[4][9][10] Conventionally, foreign minister Metternich was opposed to the characterization of the Ottoman Empire as "sick man of the Bosphorus" because this could lead to his country, the Austrian Empire, becoming the "sick man of the Danube".[11] Other historians, evaluating the conservative "Holy Alliance" of the time, have seen Metternich's foreign policy as aligned with Nicholas, including the policy towards the Ottoman Empire.[10]

Crimean War

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British statesman John Russell in 1853, in the run-up to the Crimean War, reported that Nicholas I of Russia described the Ottoman Empire as "a sick man—a very sick man", a "man who has fallen into a state of decrepitude", and a "sick man ... gravely ill".[12][13][14][15]

There has been some degree of debate about the source of the quotation, which often relies on historical documents held or communicated personally.[14] Historian Harold Temperley (1879–1939) gave the date for the first conversation as 9 January 1853, like Goldfrank.[13][16] According to Temperley, Seymour in a private conversation had to push the Tsar to be more specific about the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, the Tsar stated,

Turkey seems to be falling to pieces, the fall will be a great misfortune. It is very important that England and Russia should come to a perfectly good understanding ... and that neither should take any decisive step of which the other is not apprized [sic].[17][18]

And then, closer to the attributed phrase:

We have a sick man on our hands, a man gravely ill, it will be a great misfortune if one of these days he slips through our hands, especially before the necessary arrangements are made.[18]

Different interpretations existed between the two countries on the "Eastern Question" by the time of the Crimean War.[4] The British Ambassador G. H. Seymour agreed with Tsar Nicholas's diagnosis, but he very deferentially disagreed with the Tsar's recommended treatment of the patient; he responded,

Your Majesty is so gracious that you will allow me to make one further observation. Your Majesty says the man is sick; it is very true; but your Majesty will deign to excuse me if I remark, that it is the part of the generous and strong man to treat with gentleness the sick and feeble man.[19]

Temperley then asserts,

The 'sickliness' of Turkey obsessed Nicholas during his reign. What he really said was omitted in the Blue Book from a mistaken sense of decorum. He said not the 'sick man' but the "bear dies … the bear is dying … you may give him musk but even musk will not long keep him alive."[20]

Christopher de Bellaigue argued that neither Nicholas nor Seymour completed the epithet with the prepositional phrase "of Europe".[14]

The first appearance of the phrase "sick man of Europe" appears in The New York Times (12 May 1860):

The condition of Austria at the present moment is not less threatening in itself, though less alarming for the peace of the world, than was the condition of Turkey when the Tsar Nicholas invited England to draw up with him the last will and testament of the 'sick man of Europe.' It is, indeed, hardly within the range of probability that another twelvemonth should pass over the House of Habsburg without bringing upon the Austrian Empire a catastrophe unmatched in modern history since the downfall of Poland.[21][22]

The author of this article can be seen to be using the term to point to a second "sick man" of Europe, the Habsburg monarchy.[22]

World War One

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Later, this view led the Allies in World War I to underestimate the Ottoman Empire, leading in part to the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign.[23][24][25][26] However, the "sick man" eventually collapsed after defeat in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I.

Post-World War I usage

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After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, writers have described many countries as the "sick men" of Europe or the Old World.[2]

France

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During the 1950s, France was characterized as the "sick man of Europe", due to a combination of economic issues and a fading optimism since the country was reestablished after World War II.[27] In 1953, Paul Reynaud described France as such to the National Assembly.[28]

A 2007 report by Morgan Stanley referred to France as the "new sick man of Europe".[29] This label was reaffirmed in January 2014 by European newspapers such as The Guardian and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung.[30][31] They justified this with France's high unemployment, weak economic growth and poor industrial output.[32]

Germany

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In the late 1990s, Germany was often labeled with this term because of its economic problems, especially due to the costs of German reunification after 1990, which were estimated to amount to over €1.5 trillion (statement of Freie Universität Berlin).[33] It continued to be used in the early 2000s, and as Germany slipped into recession in 2003.[34] In contrast, a 2016 article by The Guardian described the German economy under Angela Merkel as a "revival" from the country's previous "sick man" status.[35] However, when Germany was experiencing economic issues again in the 2020s, concerns about the "sick man" characterisation reemerged, with Kiel Institute President Moritz Schularick saying: "If Germany does not want to become the 'sick man of Europe' once again, it must now courageously turn its attention to the growth sectors of tomorrow instead of fearfully spending billions to preserve yesterday's energy-intensive industries."[36]

Italy

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In 1972, PSDI politician Luigi Preti wrote a book titled Sick Italy (Italia malata). In it, he says that Italy was at risk of becoming "the sick man of Europe who has proved unable to keep in step as soon as he reached the first milestone on the road to well‐being".[37]

In May 2005, this title was again attributed to Italy, with The Economist describing it as "the real sick man of Europe". This refers to Italy's structural and political difficulties thought to inhibit economic reforms to relaunch economic growth. In 2018, Italy was again referred to as the "sick man of Europe" following post-election deadlock.[38][39] In 2008, in an opinion piece criticizing the country's approach to economic reform, The Daily Telegraph also used the term to describe Italy,[40] as did a CNBC op-ed in 2020.[41]

Russia

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The Russian Empire in 1917 was described as the "Sick Man of Europe" in an edition of The New York Times from that year. In the 1917 article by Charles Richard Crane, the illness metaphor is used more directly, with the empire described as "Suffering From Overdose of Exaggerated Modernism in Socialist Reform Ideas", and "the danger for the patient lay in the fact that too many quacks and ignorant specialists were contending for the right to be admitted to the bedside and administer nostrums."[2][42]

Post-Soviet Russia has also been referred to as such in the 2007 book Kremlin Rising: Vladimir Putin's Russia and the End of Revolution by Peter Baker and Susan Glasser,[43] and by Mark Steyn in his 2006 book America Alone: The End of the World as We Know It.[44]

In the aftermath of the Wagner Group rebellion during the Russian invasion of Ukraine (and Vladimir Putin's perceived weakness in confronting it), political scientist Aleksandar Đokić said in 2023 that the "sick man of Europe" moniker "seem[ed] fitting for Putin’s Russia". While acknowledging the term itself to be simplistic, Đokić stated that:

"The poetic justice of the imperialistic, orientalising and commonly overused term coming back to haunt its place of origin aside, Putin’s Russia has decidedly found itself in a military, economic, political, demographic, and even conceptual dead end."[45]

United Kingdom

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Throughout the late 1960s and 1970s, the United Kingdom was sometimes characterized as the "sick man of Europe", first by commentators, and later at home by critics of the third Wilson/Callaghan ministry due to industrial strife and poor economic performance compared with other European countries.[46] Some observers consider this era to have started with the devaluation of the pound in 1967, culminating with the so-called Winter of Discontent of 1978–79. At different points throughout the decade, numerous countries such as Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, and Greece were cited by the American business press as being "on the verge of sickness" as well.

In the summer of 2017, the United Kingdom was again referred to as the "sick man of Europe" due to the immediate impact of the EU referendum results.[5] The term was used frequently by the early 2020s with regards to the economic effects of Brexit, ongoing industrial action in the public sector, leadership turmoil within the Conservative party, and the cost of living crisis.[47][48][49] As of June 2023, the label is still frequently applied to the United Kingdom as inflation and price increases continue to generate economic uncertainty within the country.[50]

The term was also more literally applied during the COVID-19 pandemic after a new strain of coronavirus, the Alpha variant, led to a number of countries closing their borders to UK air travel.[51]

Other uses

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Swedish Diplomat and former Prime Minister Carl Bildt once referred to Serbia under the rule of Slobodan Milošević as a candidate for the new "sick man of Europe" in 1997. This is due to political instability in Yugoslavia and its former territories caused by Yugoslav Wars that rocked the Balkan region from 1991 until 2001.[52]

In 2007, The Economist described Portugal as "a new sick man of Europe".[53]

In July 2009, the pejorative was given by EurActiv to Greece in view of the 2008 Greek riots, rising unemployment, and political corruption.[54]

In spring 2011, Eurozine suggested that the European Union was the "sick man of Europe" by entitling an event focusing on the Eurozone crisis, "The EU: the real sick man of Europe?"[55]

In 2015 and 2016, Finland was called the "sick man of Europe" due to its recession and lacklustre growth, in a time when virtually all other European countries had recovered from the Great Recession.[56][57]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ United Kingdom Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth "consistent series" supplied in Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2024). "What Was the U.K. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved July 15, 2024.
  2. ^ a b c d Karaian, Jason; Sonnad, Nikhil (2019). "All the people, places, and things called the 'sick man of Europe' over the past 160 years". Quartz. Retrieved 2021-12-21.
  3. ^ Archives, The National. "Exhibitions & Learning online – British Battles". The National Archives. Retrieved 2021-12-21.
  4. ^ a b c Badem, Candan (2010). The Ottoman Crimean War, 1853-1856. citing Eckstädt, 1887. Boston: Brill. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-90-04-19096-2. OCLC 668221743.
  5. ^ a b Branchflower, David (2017-07-24). "'Britain is fast becoming the sick man of Europe' – experts debate Brexit data". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
  6. ^ "The German problem? It's an analogue country in a digital world". The Guardian. 2024-09-01. Retrieved 2024-09-06.
  7. ^ "Media's 'Sick Man of Europe' Diagnosis for Germany Needs a Second Opinion". Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting. Retrieved 2024-10-16.
  8. ^ "GDP – International Comparisons: Key Economic Indicators". House of Commons Library. 2024-08-15. Retrieved 2024-09-06.
  9. ^ Vitzthum von Eckstädt, Karl Friedrich; Reeve, Henry; Taylor, Edward Fairfax (1887). St. Petersburg and London in the years 1852–64. University of Michigan. London, Longmans, Green & co. pp. 29–30.
  10. ^ a b Šedivý, Miroslav (2011). "From Adrianople to Münchengrätz: Metternich, Russia, and the Eastern Question 1829–33". The International History Review. 33 (2): 205–233. doi:10.1080/07075332.2011.555387. ISSN 0707-5332. JSTOR 23032802. S2CID 154635816.
  11. ^ Discourses of collective identity in Central and Southeast Europe (1770-1945) : texts and commentaries. Vol. II, National romanticism, the formation of national movements. Balázs Trencsényi, Michal Kopeček. Budapest: Central European University Press. 2007. p. 368. ISBN 978-1-4294-2547-6. OCLC 77601805.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  12. ^ de Bellaigue, Christopher. "Turkey's Hidden Past". The New York Review of Books, 48:4, 2001-03-08.
  13. ^ a b de Bellaigue, Christopher. "The Sick Man of Europe". The New York Review of Books, 48:11, 2001-07-05.
  14. ^ a b c Bellaigue, Christopher de. "'The Sick Man of Europe'". The New York Review of Books. ISSN 0028-7504. Retrieved 2021-12-21.
  15. ^ "Ottoman Empire." Britannica Student Encyclopedia. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 Apr. 2007.
  16. ^ Harold Temperley, England and the Near East (London: Longmans, Greens and Co., 1936), p. 272.
  17. ^ Temperley, Harold (2019-05-29). England and the Near East: The Crimea. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-64054-4.
  18. ^ a b Harold Temperley, England and the Near East (London: Longmans, Greens and Co., 1936), p. 272. Temperley's translation of the Emperor's comment [spoken in French] is quite accurate. An alternative translation from the original published document follows: "We have on our hands a sick man—a very sick man: it will be, I tell you frankly, a great misfortune if, one of these days, he should slip away from us, especially before all necessary arrangements were made." Source: Parliamentary Papers. Accounts and Papers: Thirty-Six Volumes: Eastern Papers, V. Session 31 January – 12 August 1854, Vol. LXXI (London: Harrison and Son, 1854), doc. 1, p. 2.
  19. ^ Parliamentary Papers. Accounts and Papers: Thirty-Six Volumes: Eastern Papers, V. Session 31 January – 12 August 1854, Vol. LXXI (London: Harrison and Son, 1854), doc. 1, p. 2.
  20. ^ Harold Temperley, England and the Near East (London: Longmans, Greens and Co., 1936), p. 272; cites: F.O. 65/424. From Seymour, No. 87 of February 21, 1853.
  21. ^ "Austria in Extremis". The New York Times. 1860-05-12. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-12-21.
  22. ^ a b Buttar, Prit (2014-06-20). Collision of Empires: The War on the Eastern Front in 1914. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-78200-971-9.
  23. ^ Ph.D, David T. Zabecki (2014-10-28). Germany at War: 400 Years of Military History [4 volumes]: 400 Years of Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-981-3.
  24. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2014-10-28). World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [5 volumes]: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-965-8.
  25. ^ Hamilton, John (2015-04-30). Gallipoli Victoria Cross Hero: The Price of Valour- The Triumph and Tragedy of Hugo Throssell VC. Frontline Books. ISBN 978-1-84832-903-4.
  26. ^ Atkin, Malcolm (2015-09-18). Fighting Nazi Occupation: British Resistance 1939-1945. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-3377-7.
  27. ^ Peterson, Wallace C. (April 1957). "Planning and Economic Progress in France". World Politics. 9 (3): 351–382. doi:10.2307/2008919. ISSN 1086-3338. JSTOR 2008919. S2CID 156469824.
  28. ^ "THE SICK MAN OF EUROPE". The New York Times. 20 June 1953. p. 16. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
  29. ^ Berner, Richard (2 March 2007). "Does Market Turmoil Change the Outlook?". Morgan Stanley. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
  30. ^ Finkenzeller, Karin (21 January 2014). "Der kranke Mann Europas" [The sick man of Europe]. Die Zeit (in German). Archived from the original on 14 May 2023.
  31. ^ "Frankreich holt sich Rat von Peter Hartz" [France seeks advice from Peter Hartz]. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Frankfurter Allgemeine. 28 January 2014. Archived from the original on 10 May 2023.
  32. ^ Elliott, Larry (2014-01-14). "France: the New Sick Man of Europe". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 April 2014.
  33. ^ "The real sick man of Europe", The Economist. May 19, 2005.
  34. ^ "The sick man of the euro". The Economist. 1999-06-03. Retrieved 2017-07-02.
  35. ^ Oltermann, Philip (2016-11-19). "Angela Merkel and the revival of the sick man of Europe". The Guardian. Retrieved 2017-07-02.
  36. ^ Böhme, Henrik (1 August 2023). "Germany: The return of the 'sick man' of Europe?". Deutsche Welle.
  37. ^ Hofmann, Paul (26 November 1972). "Spreading Malaise Vexes Italy". The New York Times. p. 1.
  38. ^ Mehreen Khan. "Italy's populists are Juncker's big headache". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
  39. ^ "Addio, dolce vita". The Economist. 24 November 2005.
  40. ^ "Italy: The sick man of Europe". The Daily Telegraph. 2008-04-15. Archived from the original on 2009-12-20. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
  41. ^ "Op-Ed: Italy, the 'sick man of Europe', tries to administer its own medicine". CNBC, 3 March 2020.
  42. ^ "CRANE DIAGNOSES RUSSIA'S AILMENT; She Is Suffering From Overdose of Exaggerated Modernism in Socialist Reform Ideas". The New York Times. 1917-09-26. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-12-21.
  43. ^ Peter Baker, Susan Glasser, Kremlin Rising: Vladimir Putin's Russia and the End of Revolution (Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2007), pp. 179–176.
  44. ^ Steyn, Mark (2008). America alone: the end of the world as we know it. Washington/D.C: Regnery Publ. ISBN 978-0-89526-078-9.
  45. ^ Đokić, Aleksandar (19 July 2023). "An empire on its deathbed can still cause pain and suffering". Euronews.
  46. ^ "The real sick man of Europe", The Economist. May 19, 2005.
  47. ^ "Tories turning UK into 'sick man of Europe', says top party donor". The Independent. October 24, 2022.
  48. ^ "UK set to be sick man of Europe, says Tory backer". MSN.
  49. ^ "UK doomed without Brexit rethink, warns City boss". BBC News. October 24, 2022.
  50. ^ "Why does Britain have the worst inflation in the G7? - BBC Newsnight". BBC News. 5 June 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
  51. ^ Mey, Gerhard; Makori, Ben (2020-12-21). "'Sick man of Europe': UK cut off over fears about new COVID strain". Reuters. Retrieved 2020-12-21.
  52. ^ "Western Press Review: Milosevic And The New 'Sick Man Of Europe'". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 1997-01-09. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
  53. ^ "A new sick man of Europe". The Economist
  54. ^ "Greece to appear 'sick man' at EU summit". 11 December 2008. Archived from the original on 2023-05-03. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
  55. ^ "The EU: the real sick man of Europe?". Eurozine. Archived from the original on 2022-07-02. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
  56. ^ Khan, Mehreen (2015-11-13). "Finland emerges as the 'new sick man of Europe' as euro's worst performing economy". Telegraph. Retrieved 2017-07-02.
  57. ^ Walker, Andrew (2016-02-29). "Finland: The sick man of Europe?". BBC News. Retrieved 2017-07-02.
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