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Phonological history of English open back vowels

(Redirected from Phonological history of English low back vowels)

The phonology of the open back vowels of the English language has undergone changes both overall and with regional variations, through Old and Middle English to the present. The sounds heard in modern English were significantly influenced by the Great Vowel Shift, as well as more recent developments in some dialects such as the cot–caught merger.

Overview

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Old and Middle English

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In the Old English vowel system, the vowels in the open back area were unrounded: /ɑ/, /ɑː/. There were also rounded back vowels of mid-height: /o/, /oː/. The corresponding spellings were ⟨a⟩ and ⟨o⟩, with the length distinctions not normally marked; in modern editions of Old English texts, the long vowels are often written ⟨ā⟩, ⟨ō⟩.

As the Old English (OE) system developed into that of Middle English (ME), the OE short vowel /ɑ/ merged with the fronted /æ/ to become a more central ME /a/. Meanwhile, the OE long vowel /ɑː/ was rounded and raised to ME /ɔː/. OE short /o/ remained relatively unchanged, becoming a short ME vowel regarded as /o/ or /ɔ/, while OE long /oː/ became ME /oː/ (a higher vowel than /ɔː/). Alternative developments were also possible; see English historical vowel correspondences for details.

Later, ME open syllable lengthening caused the short vowel /o/ to be normally changed to /ɔː/ in open syllables. Remaining instances of the short vowel /o/ also tended to become lower. Hence in Late Middle English (around 1400) the following open back vowels were present, distinguished by length:[1]

  • /ɔ/, spelt ⟨o⟩, as in dog, god
  • /ɔː/, often spelt ⟨oa⟩, or ⟨o⟩ before consonant+vowel or certain consonant pairs, as in boat, whole, old

16th-century changes

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By 1600, the following changes had occurred:

  • The long vowel /ɔː/ of boat had been raised to /oː/ as a result of the Great Vowel Shift.
  • The diphthong /aw/ found in words such as cause, law, all, salt, psalm, half, change, chamber, dance had become an open back monophthong /ɔː/ or /ɑː/.
  • At this time, the short /ɔ/ in dog was lowered to /ɒ/

There were thus two open back monophthongs:

  • /ɒ/ as in lot
  • /ɔː/ or /ɑː/ as in cause

and one open back diphthong:

  • /ɔw/ as in low

17th-century changes

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By 1700, the following further developments had taken place:

That left the standard form of the language with four open back vowels:

  • /ɒ/ in lot and want.
  • /ɒː/ in cloth and cost.
  • /ɑː/ in start, father and palm.
  • /ɔː/ in tor, cause, and corn.

Later changes

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From the 18th century on, the following changes have occurred:

  • The three-way distinction between /ɒ/, /ɒː/, and /ɔː/ was simplified in one of two ways:
    • In General American and old-fashioned RP, /ɒː/ was raised to /ɔː/, merging with the vowel in THOUGHT (the cloth-thought merger).
    • In many accents of England, the lengthening of the CLOTH set was undone, restoring the short pronunciation /ɒ/. This became standard RP by the mid-20th century.
  • In General American, the lot vowel has become unrounded and merged into /ɑ/ (the father–bother merger).

This leaves RP with three back vowels:

  • /ɒ/ in lot, want, cloth, and cost.
  • /ɔː/ in tor, cause, and corn.
  • /ɑː/ in start, father, and palm.

and General American with two:

  • /ɑ/ in lot, want, start, father, and palm.
  • /ɔ/ in tor, cause, corn, cloth and cost.

Unrounded LOT

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In a few varieties of English, the vowel in lot is unrounded, pronounced toward [ɑ]. This is found in the following dialects:

There's also evidence for it in South East England as early as the late 16th century and as late as the 19th century.[2][3]

Linguists[which?] disagree as to whether the unrounding of the lot vowel occurred independently in North America (probably occurring around the end of the 17th century) or was imported from certain types of speech current in Britain at that time.[citation needed]

In such accents outside of North America, lot typically is pronounced as [lɑt],[4] therefore being kept distinct from the vowel in palm, pronounced [pɑːm] or [paːm]. However, the major exception to this is North American English, where the vowel is lengthened to merge with the vowel in palm, as described below. This merger is called the LOT–PALM merger or more commonly the father–bother merger. (See further below.)

Father–bother merger

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The father–bother merger is a phonemic merger of the lexical sets LOT and PALM. It represents unrounded lot, as detailed above, taken a step further. On top of being unrounded, the length distinction between the vowel in lot and bother and the vowel in palm and father is lost, so that the two groups merge. This causes father and bother to become rhymes.

This occurs in the great majority of North American accents; of the North American dialects that have unrounded lot, the only notable exception to the merger is New York City English, where the opposition with the [ɑ]-type vowel is somewhat tenuous.[5][6]

Examples of possible homophones resulting from the merger include Khan and con (/kɑn/) as well as Saab and sob (/sɑb/).[7]

While the accents in northeastern New England, such as the Boston accent, also remain unmerged, lot remains rounded and merges instead with cloth and thought.[5][6]

Homophonous pairs
/ɑ:/ /ɒ/ or /ɔ/[a] IPA (using ⟨ɑ⟩ for the merged vowel) Notes
ah awe ˈɑ with the cot-caught merger
balm bomb ˈbɑm when the <l> in balm is unsounded
Bali bolly[8] ˈbɑli
baht bot ˈbɑt
baht bought ˈbɑt with the cot-caught merger
Dalí dolly ˈdɑli
Hajj Hodge ˈhɑdʒ
Khan con ˈkɑn
la[9] law ˈlɑ with the cot-caught merger
lager logger ˈlɑgər
Mali Molly ˈmɑli
pa paw ˈpɑ with the cot-caught merger
palm pom ˈpɑm when the <l> in palm is unsounded
Prague prog[10] ˈprɑg
Raab rob ˈrɑb
Saab sob ˈsɑb
Shah Shaw ˈʃɑ with the cot-caught merger
Siân Sean, Shaun, Shawn ˈʃɑn with the cot-caught merger
Siân shone ˈʃɑn
Stalin stalling ˈstɑlɪn with the cot-caught merger and G-dropping.

LOT–CLOTH split

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The LOT–CLOTH split is the result of a late 17th-century sound change that lengthened /ɒ/ to [ɒː] before voiceless fricatives, and also before /n/ in the words gone and sometimes on. It was ultimately raised and merged with /ɔː/ of words like thought, although in some accents that vowel is actually open [ɒː]. This means that CLOTH is not a separate vowel; rather, it means "either LOT or THOUGHT, depending on the accent". The sound change is most consistent in the last syllable of a word, and much less so elsewhere (see below). Some words that entered the language later, especially when used more in writing than speech, are exempt from the lengthening, e.g. joss and Goth with the short vowel. Similar changes took place in words with ⟨a⟩; see trap–bath split and /æ/-tensing.

The cot–caught merger, discussed below, has removed the distinction in some dialects.

As a result of the lengthening and raising, in the above-mentioned accents cross rhymes with sauce, and soft and cloth also have the vowel /ɔː/. Accents affected by this change include American English accents that lack the cot-caught merger and formerly RP, although with the exception of water /wɔːtə(r)/, today words of this group almost always have short /ɒ/ in RP.

The lengthening and raising generally happened before the fricatives /f/, /θ/, and /s/, and in the word water for an unknown reason (compare the broadening of a in father). In American English, the raising was extended to the environment before velars /ŋ/ and /ɡ/, and sometimes before /k/ as well, giving pronunciations like /lɔŋ/ for long, /dɔɡ/ for dog and /ˈtʃɔklət/ for chocolate.

In the varieties of American English that have the lot–cloth split, the lot vowel is usually symbolized as /ɑ/, often called the "short o" for historical reasons, as the corresponding RP vowel /ɒ/ is still short (and it contrasts with /ɑː/ as in father and start). The thought vowel is usually transcribed as /ɔ/ and it is often called the "open o". Its actual phonetic realization may be open [ɒ], whereas the lot vowel may be realized as central [ä]. Some words vary as to which vowel they have. For example, words that end in -og like frog, hog, fog, log, bog etc. have /ɑ/ in some accents and /ɔ/ in others.

There are also significant complexities in the pronunciation of written o occurring before one of the triggering phonemes /f θ s ŋ ɡ/ in a non-final syllable. In other cases, however, the use of the open o as opposed to the short o is largely predictable. Just like with /æ/-tensing and the trap–bath split, there seems to be an open-syllable constraint. Namely, the change did not affect words with /ɑ/ in open syllables unless they were closely derived from words with /ɑ/ in closed syllables. Hence /ɔ/ occurs in crossing, crosser, crosses because it occurs in cross. In contrast, possible, jostle, impostor, profit, Gothic, and boggle all have /ɑ/. However, there are still exceptions in words like Boston and foster.[11][12][13][14][15][16][17] A further list of words is mentioned in the table below:

Vowels with lot–cloth splits
Set THOUGHT (/ɔ/) LOT (/ɑ/) Variable
/-f/ coffer, coffin, cough, off, office, often, soften, trough, etc. philosophical, profit coffee, offense, offer, waffle
/-ft/ croft, loft, lofty, soft, etc. waft —
/-g/ dog boggle, cog, flog blog, boondoggle, fog, frog, hog, log, soggy, tog, etc.
/-k/ bock, chocolate all other words in this set clock, mock, shock
/-n/ gone all other words in this set beyond, on, upon, want[b], wont
/-ŋ/ long, longest, song, strong, thong, wrong, etc. Congo, bongo, congress, conquer donkey, conch
/-s/ boss, cross, floss, glossy, loss, moss, toss, etc. apostle, fossil, jostle, oscillate, philosophy, posse, possible, possum, rhinoceros, velocity glossary
/-st/ accost, Boston, cost, foster, frost, lost apostrophe, (a/pro)gnostic, hostage, hostel, hostile, impostor, nostril, ossify, ostensible, ostentatious, ostracism, posterity, prosecute, roster Gloucester, nostalgia, ostrich, rostrum
/-ʃ/ Washington, wash, washer all other words in this set gosh, quash, squash, swash
/-tər/ water all other words in this set —
/-θ/ broth, cloth, froth, moth, etc. Goth, Gothic sloth, swath, troth, wrath

Some words may vary depending on the speaker like (coffee, offer, donkey, soggy, boondoggle, etc. with either /ɑ/ or /ɔ/).[citation needed] Meanwhile, other words vary by region. For example, the word on, which in Northern American English dialects without the cot-caught merger is pronounced /ɑn/, rhyming with don, but in Midland and Southern American English without the merger is pronounced /ɔn/, rhyming with dawn. The isogloss for this difference, termed the ON line, lies between New York City and Philadelphia on the East Coast and runs West as far as speakers without the merger can be found.[19] Pronunciation of the word want as /wɔnt/ is also strongly associated with the South.[20]

Cot–caught merger

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Main article: Cot–caught merger

The cot–caught merger (also known as the low back merger or the LOT–THOUGHT merger) is a phonemic merger occurring in many accents of English, where the vowel sound in words like cot, nod, and stock (the LOT vowel), has merged with that of caught, gnawed, and stalk (the THOUGHT vowel). For example, with the merger, cot and caught become perfect homophones.

Lexical changes in cot–caught merger dialects of North America
Lexical set Example words Change GenAm phonemes Minimal pairs IPA Change Cot–caught merger dialects
PALM ah, father, spa Father–bother
merger 		/ɑ/ cot, collar, stock,
wok, chock, Don 		/kɑt/, /ˈkɑlər/, /stɑk/,
/wɑk/, /tʃɑk/, /dɑn/ 		Cot–caught
merger 		/kɑt/, /ˈkɑlər/, /stɑk/,
/wɑk/, /tʃɑk/, /dɑn/
LOT bother, lot, wasp
CLOTH boss, cloth, dog, off Cloth-thought
merger 		/ɔ/ caught, caller, stalk,
walk, chalk, dawn 		/kɔt/, /ˈkɔlər/, /stɔk/,
/wɔk/, /tʃɔk/, /dɔn/
THOUGHT all, thought, flaunt

Other changes

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GOAT–THOUGHT merger

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The GOAT–THOUGHT merger is a merger of the English vowels of GOAT /oʊ/ and THOUGHT /ɔː/ that has been reported in Geordie since the late 20th century, with a quality around [oː]. The merger is more common among younger female speakers.[21]

The merger also exists among older speakers in Bradford English with a quality around [ɔː], but younger speakers are more likely to resist the merger by fronting the GOAT vowel.[21]

Homophonous pairs
/ɔo:/ /oʊ/ IPA (using ⟨oː⟩ for the merged vowel) Notes
aboard abode əˈboːd non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
alder older ˈoːdə
augur ogre ˈoːgə
auk oak ˈoːk
awe O ˈoː
awe oh ˈoː
awe owe ˈoː
awed ode ˈoːd
awning owning ˈoːnɪŋ
bald bold ˈboːld
bald bowled ˈboːld
ball bowl ˈboːl
boar beau ˈboː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
bore beau ˈboː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
boar bow ˈboː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
bore bow ˈboː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
board bode ˈboːd non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
bored bode ˈboːd non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
born bone ˈboːn non-rhotic
caulk coke ˈkoːk
call coal ˈkoːl
caller cola ˈkoːlə non-rhotic
caught coat ˈkoːt
cawed code ˈkoːd
chalk choke ˈtʃoːk
chord code ˈkod non-rhotic
clause close ˈkloːz
claws close ˈkloːz
cord code ˈkoːd non-rhotic
cork coke ˈkoːk non-rhotic
corks coax ˈkoːks non-rhotic
court coat ˈkoːt non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
daunt don't ˈdoːnt
door doe ˈdoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
drawl droll ˈdroːl
drawn drone ˈdroːn
explored explode ˈɪksploːd non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
fall foal ˈfoːl
fawn phone ˈfoːn
flaw flow ˈfloː
floor flow ˈfloː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
for foe ˈfoː non-rhotic
fore foe ˈfoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
fork folk ˈfoːk non-rhotic
form foam ˈfoːm non-rhotic
four foe ˈfoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
gall goal ˈgoːl
galled gold ˈgoːld
Gaul goal ˈgoːl
gnaw know ˈnoː
gnaw no ˈnoː
hall hole ˈhoːl
hall whole ˈhoːl
haul hole ˈhoːl
haul whole ˈhoːl
hauled hold ˈhoːld
haw ho ˈhoː
haw hoe ˈhoː
hawks hoax ˈhoːks
hoard hoed ˈhoːd non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
horn hone ˈhoːn non-rhotic
jaw Joe ˈdʒoː
laud lord ˈloː
law low ˈloː
lawn loan ˈloːn
lawn lone ˈloːn
lord load ˈloːd non-rhotic
lore low ˈloː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
mall mole ˈmoːl
maul mole ˈmoːl
mauled mould ˈmoːld
maw mow ˈmoː
more mow ˈmoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
mortar motor ˈmoːtə non-rhotic
nor know ˈnoː non-rhotic
nor no ˈnoː non-rhotic
norm gnome ˈnoːm non-rhotic
nought note ˈnoːt
oar O ˈoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
oar oh ˈoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
oar owe ˈoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
or O ˈoː non-rhotic
or oh ˈoː non-rhotic
or owe ˈoː non-rhotic
order odour ˈoːdə non-rhotic
ore O ˈoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
ore oh ˈoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
ore owe ˈoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
overawed overrode oːvəˈroːd
pall pole ˈpoːl
Paul pole ˈpoːl
pause pose ˈpoːz
paws pose ˈpoːz
pores pose ˈpoːz non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
pours pose ˈpoːz non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
porch poach ˈpoːtʃ non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
pork poke ˈpoːk non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
portion potion ˈpoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
prawn prone ˈproːn
quart quote ˈkwoːt non-rhotic
raw row ˈroː
roar row ˈroː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
saw sew ˈsoː
saw so ˈsoː
scald scold ˈskoːld
scrawl scroll ˈskroːl
shawl shoal ˈʃoːl
Shaun shown ˈʃoːn
Shaw show ˈʃoː
shore show ˈʃoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
shorn shown ˈʃoːn non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
slaw slow ˈsloː
snore snow ˈsnoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
stalk stoke ˈstoːk
stall stole ˈstoːl
store stow ˈstoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
stork stoke ˈstoːk non-rhotic
strawed strode ˈstroːd
talk toque ˈtoːk
taught tote ˈtoːt
taut tote ˈtoːt
tor toe ˈtoː non-rhotic
tor tow ˈtoː non-rhotic
tore toe ˈtoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
tore tow ˈtoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
torn tone ˈtoːn non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
tawny Tony ˈtoːni
trawl troll ˈtroːl
walk woke ˈwoːk
walled wold ˈwoːld
war woe ˈwoː non-rhotic
ward wode ˈwoːd non-rhotic
warred wode ˈwoːd non-rhotic
yore yo ˈjoː non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
York yolk ˈjoːk
York yoke ˈjoːk

THOUGHT split

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In some London accents of English, the vowel in words such as thought, force, and north, which merged earlier on in these varieties of English, undergoes a conditional split based on syllable structure: closed syllables have a higher vowel quality such as [oː] (possibly even [oʊ] in broad Cockney varieties), and open syllables have a lower vowel quality [ɔ̝ː] or a centering diphthong [ɔə].

Originally-open syllables with an inflectional suffix (such as bored) retain the lower vowel quality, creating minimal pairs such as bored [bɔəd] vs. board [boːd].[22]

In broad Geordie, some THOUGHT words (roughly, those spelled with a, as in walk and talk) have [aː] (which phonetically is the long counterpart of TRAP /a/) instead of the standard [ɔː]. Those are the traditional dialect forms which are being replaced with the standard [ɔː]. [aː] is therefore not necessarily a distinct phoneme in the vowel system of Geordie, also because it occurs as an allophone of /a/ before voiced consonants.[23]

WRATH-ROTH merger

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The WRATH-ROTH merger is a merger of the English vowel of WRATH /æ~ɑː/ into the vowel of ROTH /ɒ~ɔ(ː)/ that appears in Received Pronunciation and some speakers of New Zealand English, occurring only when the vowel appears after wr (historical /wr/).

Distribution of /ɑː/

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The distribution of the vowel transcribed with ⟨ɑː⟩ in broad IPA varies greatly among dialects. It corresponds to /æ/, /ɒ/, /ɔː/ and (when not prevocalic within the same word) /ɑːr/ and even /ɔːr/ in other dialects:

  • In non-rhotic dialects spoken outside of North America, /ɑː/ corresponds mostly to /ɑːr/ in General American and so is most often spelled ⟨ar⟩. In dialects with the trap–bath split (such as Received Pronunciation, New Zealand English and South African English), it also corresponds to GA /æ/, which means that it can also be spelled ⟨a⟩ before voiceless fricatives. In those dialects, /ɒ/ and /ɔː/ are separate phonemes.
  • In native words, /ɑː/ in most non-rhotic speech of North America corresponds to both /ɑːr/ in GA (RP /ɑː/) and /ɒ/ in RP, as those dialects feature the father–bother merger.
  • North American English features the father–bother merger, where /ɑː/ often corresponds to /ɒ/ in RP. Only New York City English and New England English distinguish between the two, and with an unrounded LOT vowel. Modern-day New York City English also has rounded /ɒː/ for reflexes of PALM, which ironically, came from an unrounded vowel.
  • The cot–caught merger usually occurs in addition to the father–bother merger. This applies to almost all of Canadian English and many varieties of American English. The result is usually /ɑ(ː)/, the PALM vowel, which is used for LOT as well. Some dialects will have /ɒ(ː)/ as the merged vowel, not /ɑ(ː)/; these include Standard Canadian English or Pittsburgh English.
  • In loanwords and names, the open central unrounded vowel [ä] in a source language is regularly approximated with /ɑ(ː)/ in North America and /æ/ in RP. However, in the case of mid back rounded vowels spelled ⟨o⟩, the usual North American approximation is /oʊ/, not /ɑː/ (in RP, it can be either /əʊ/ or /ɒ/). However, when the vowel is both stressed and word-final, the only possibilities in RP are /ɑː/ in the first case and /əʊ/ in the latter case, mirroring GA.

For the sake of simplicity, instances of an unrounded LOT vowel (phonetically [ɑ]) that do not merge with PALM/START are excluded from the table below. For this reason, the traditional Norfolk dialect is included but the contemporary one, nor the Cardiff dialect, are not.

/ɑː/ in native words and non-recent loanwords
Variety Rhotic Mergers and splits Possible spellings
/ɒrV-ɑːrV/ merger card-cord merger cot-caught merger father–bother merger father–farther merger god-guard merger lot-cloth split trap-palm merger trap-bath split ⟨a⟩ ⟨ar⟩ ⟨au⟩[c] ⟨aw⟩ ⟨o⟩ ⟨or⟩
Australian English no no no no no yes no no no partial[d] yes yes no no no no
Canadian English yes no no yes variable — — — no no yes no yes yes yes no
General American yes no no variable yes — — yes no no yes no variable variable yes no
Hiberno-English yes no no variable no — — variable variable variable variable no no no no no
New York City English variable possible no no variable variable variable yes no no yes no no no variable no
New Zealand English mostly no no no no no mostly yes no no no yes yes mostly yes no no no no
Northeastern New England English variable no no yes no variable no — no no yes yes no no no no
Northern England English no no no no no yes no no no no yes yes no no no no
Philadelphia English yes possible no no yes — — yes no no yes no no no yes no
Received Pronunciation no no no no no yes no no no yes yes yes no no no no
Scottish English yes no no mostly yes no — — — (mostly) mostly yes mostly no mostly no no no no no no
South African English mostly no no no no no mostly yes no variable no yes yes mostly yes no no no no
Southern American English variable mostly no mostly no variable yes variable variable yes no no yes variable variable variable yes mostly no
Traditional Norfolk dialect no variable no no variable yes variable yes no yes yes yes no no yes no
Welsh English mostly no no no no no mostly yes no no no variable yes yes no no no no

Fronted /oʊ/

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See also: English-language vowel changes before historic /l/ § Goat split

In many dialects of English, the vowel /oʊ/ has undergone fronting. The exact phonetic value varies. Dialects with the fronted /oʊ/ include Received Pronunciation; Southern, Midland, and Mid-Atlantic American English; and Australian English. This fronting does not generally occur before /l/, a relatively retracted consonant.

Table

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Stages leading to some of the open back vowels of General American, summarized from Wells (1982), with the cot–caught merger added
law
ball
taught
caught		 off
cloth
loss		 lot
stop
rob
cot
bother		 father
palm
calm
Middle English au̯ ɔ a
Quality change au̯ ɒ a
Thought-monophthonging ɔː ɒ a
Pre-fricative lengthening ɔː ɒː ɒ a
A-lengthening ɔː ɒː ɒ aː
Quality change ɔː ɒː ɒ ɑː
Lot-unrounding ɔː ɒː ɑ ɑː
Loss of distinctive length ɔ ɒ ɑ ɑ
Cloth–thought merger ɔ ɔ ɑ ɑ
General American output ɔ ɑ
Cot–caught merger ɑ

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ only homophonous with the cot-caught merger
  2. ^ Also pronounced /wʌnt/ by some American speakers[18]
  3. ^ Excluding words with anomalous pronunciations of ⟨au⟩ like laugh and aunt.
  4. ^ Complete before voiceless fricatives: /-f/, /-s/, /-θ/ but variable before nasals: /-mpəl/, /-nd/, /-nt/, /-ntʃ/, /-ns/.

References

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  1. ^ Barber (1997), pp. 108, 111.
  2. ^ Mazarin, André (2020-01-01). "The developmental progression of English vowel systems, 1500–1800: Evidence from grammarians". Ampersand. 7: 100058. doi:10.1016/j.amper.2020.100058. ISSN 2215-0390.
  3. ^ Trudgill, Peter; Gordon, Elizabeth; Lewis, Gillian; Maclagan, Margaret (2000). "Determinism in new-dialect formation and the genesis of New Zealand English". Journal of Linguistics. 36 (2): 299. ISSN 0022-2267.
  4. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 245, 339–40, 419.
  5. ^ a b Wells (1982), pp. 136–37, 203–6, 234, 245–47, 339–40, 400, 419, 443, 576.
  6. ^ a b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 171.
  7. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 169.
  8. ^ "Bolly Definition & Meaning". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2022-12-09.
  9. ^ "LA English meaning". Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved 2022-12-27.
  10. ^ "Prog Definition & Meaning". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2022-12-27.
  11. ^ "possible". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  12. ^ "jostle". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  13. ^ "impostor". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  14. ^ "profit". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  15. ^ "Gothic". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  16. ^ "Boston". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  17. ^ "foster". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  18. ^ "want". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  19. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 189.
  20. ^ Thomas, Erik R. (2004). Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider (ed.). A Handbook of Varieties of English Volume 1: Phonology. De Gruyter. p. 306.
  21. ^ a b Warburton, Jasmine (September 2020). "The Merging of the goat and thought Vowels in Tyneside English: Evidence from Production and Perception" (PDF). Retrieved 5 April 2024.
  22. ^ Ostalski (2009), pp. 106–107.
  23. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 360, 375.

Bibliography

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