In Christian scribal practice, nomina sacra (singular: nomen sacrum, Latin for 'sacred name') is the abbreviation of several frequently occurring divine names or titles, especially in Greek manuscripts of the Bible. A nomen sacrum consists of two or more letters from the original word spanned by an overline.
Biblical scholar and textual critic Bruce M. Metzger lists 15 such words treated as nomina sacra from Greek papyri: the Greek counterparts of God, Lord, Jesus, Christ, Son, Spirit, David, Cross, Mother, Father, Israel, Savior, Man, Jerusalem, and Heaven.[1]: 36–37 These nomina sacra are all found in Greek manuscripts of the 3rd century and earlier, except Mother, which appears in the 4th. All 15 occur in Greek manuscripts later than the 4th century.[2]
Nomina sacra also occur in some form in Latin, Coptic, Armenian (indicated by the pativ), Gothic, Old Nubian, Old Irish and Cyrillic (indicated by the titlo).
Origin and development
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Nomina sacra are consistently observed in even the earliest extant Christian writings, along with the codex form rather than the roll, implying that when these were written, in approximately the second century, the practice had already been established for some time. However, it is not known precisely when and how the nomina sacra first arose.
The initial system of nomina sacra apparently consisted of just four or five words, called nomina divina: the Greek words for Jesus, Christ, Lord, God, and possibly Spirit. The practice quickly expanded to a number of other words regarded as sacred.[3]
In the system of nomina sacra that came to prevail, abbreviation is by contraction, meaning that the first and last letter (at least) of each word are used. In a few early cases, an alternate practice is seen of abbreviation by suspension, meaning that the initial two letters (at least) of the word are used; e.g., the opening verses of Revelation in 𝔓18 write Ἰησοῦς Χριστός (Jesus Christ) as ΙΗ ΧΡ. Contraction, however, offered the practical advantage of indicating the case of the abbreviated noun.
It is evident that the use of nomina sacra was an act of reverence rather than a purely practical space-saving device,[4]: 100, 104-106 as they were employed even where well-established abbreviations of far more frequent words such as and were avoided,[4]: 101 and the nomen sacrum itself was written with generous spacing.[4]: 100 Furthermore, early scribes often distinguished between mundane and sacred occurrences of the same word, e.g. a spirit vs. the Spirit, and applied nomina sacra only to the latter (at times necessarily revealing an exegetical choice), although later scribes would mechanically abbreviate all occurrences.
Scholars have advanced a number of theories on the origin of the nomina sacra. Biblical scholar Larry Hurtado has suggested Greek numerals as the origin of the overline spanning the nomen sacrum, with ΙΗ, the ordinary way of writing "18", being taken as reminiscent of a suspended form of ΙΗΣΟΥΣ (Jesus).[5] In some Greek Scripture manuscripts the Hebrew tetragrammaton (transliterated as YHWH) is found unabbreviated in the Greek text. The Septuagint manuscript Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1007 even uses an abbreviated form of the tetragrammaton: two Greek zetas with a horizontal line through the middle, imitating two Paleo-Hebrew yodhs (𐤉𐤉).[4][6]
Greek culture also employed a number of ways of abbreviating even proper names, though none in quite the same form as the nomina sacra. Inspiration for the contracted forms (using the first and last letter) has also been seen in Revelation, where Jesus speaks of himself as "the beginning and the end" and "the first and the last" as well "the Alpha and the Omega".[7]
Linguist George Howard argues that κς (κύριος) and θς (θεός) were the initial nomina sacra, created by non-Jewish Christian scribes who "found no traditional reasons to preserve the tetragrammaton" in copies of the Septuagint. Hurtado, following Colin Roberts, rejects that claim in favour of the theory that the first was ιη (Ἰησοῦς), as suggested in the Epistle of Barnabas, followed by the analogous χρ (Χριστός), and later by κς and θς, at about the time when the contracted forms ις and χς were adopted for the first two.[8]
Cilliers Breytenbach and Christiane Zimmermann report that by the end of the 2nd century nomina sacra occur even in Christian tomb inscriptions in Greek in Lycaonia (modern central Turkey).[9]
List of Greek nomina sacra
editSource:[1]
| English meaning | Greek word | Nominative (Subject) | Genitive (Possessive) |
|---|---|---|---|
| God | Θεός, Theos | ΘΣ | ΘΥ |
| Lord | Κύριος, Kyrios | ΚΣ, ΚΣ | ΚΥ, ΚΥ |
| Jesus | Ἰησοῦς, Iēsous | ΙΣ, ΙΗΣ | ΙΥ, ΙΗΥ |
| Christ/Messiah | Χριστός, Christos | ΧΣ, ΧΡΣ | ΧΥ |
| Son | Υἱός, Huios | ΥΣ | ΥΥ |
| Spirit | Πνεῦμα, Pneuma | ΠΝΑ | ΠΣ, ΠΝΣ, ΠΝΟΣ |
| David | Δαυίδ, Dauid | ΔΑΔ | |
| Cross | Σταυρός, Stauros | ΣΤΣ | ΣΤΥ |
| Mother | Μήτηρ, Mētēr | ΜΗΡ, ΜΡ | ΜΡΣ |
| Father | Πατήρ, Patēr | ΠΗΡ, ΠΡ | ΠΡΣ |
| Israel | Ἰσραήλ, Israēl | ΙΗΛ | |
| Savior | Σωτήρ, Sōtēr | ΣΗΡ | ΣΡΣ |
| Human | Ἄνθρωπος, Anthrōpos | ΑΝΟΣ | ΑΝΟΥ |
| Jerusalem | Ἱερουσαλήμ, Ierousalēm | ΙΛΗΜ | |
| Heaven/Heavens | Οὐρανός, Ouranos | ΟΥΝΟΣ | ΟΥΝΟΥ |
New Testament Greek manuscripts containing nomina sacra (before 300 CE)
editSource:[10]
| Greek manuscript | Manuscript date | Nomina sacra used |
|---|---|---|
| 𝔓1 (P. Oxy. 2) | ~250
|
ΙΥ ΙΣ ΧΥ ΥΥ ΚΥ ΠΝΣ |
| 𝔓4 (Suppl. Gr. 1120) | 150–225
|
ΘΣ ΘΥ ΚΥ ΚΣ ΠΝΙ ΠΝΟΣ ΠΝΑ ΧΣ ΙΥ ΙΣ |
| 𝔓5 (P. Oxy. 208 + 1781) | ~250
|
ΙΗΝ ΙΗΣ ΠΡ ΠΡΑ ΠΡΣ ΘΥ |
| 𝔓9 (P. Oxy. 402) | ~250
|
ΘΣ ΧΡΣ |
| 𝔓12 (P. Amherst. 3b) | ~285
|
ΘΣ |
| 𝔓13 (P. Oxy. 657 + PSI 1292) | 225–250
|
ΘΣ ΘΝ ΘΥ ΘΩ ΙΣ ΙΝ ΙΥ ΚΣ ΚΥ |
| 𝔓15 (P. Oxy. 1008) | 200–300
|
ΚΩ ΚΥ ΧΥ ΑΝΩΝ ΑΝΩ ΠΝΑ ΘΝ ΚΜΟΥ |
| 𝔓16 (P. Oxy. 1009) | 250–300
|
ΘΥ ΙΥ ΧΩ |
| 𝔓17 (P. Oxy. 1078) | ~300
|
ΘΩ ΠΝΣ |
| 𝔓18 (P. Oxy. 1079) | 250–300
|
ΙΗ ΧΡ ΘΩ |
| 𝔓20 (P. Oxy. 1171) | 200–250
|
ΠΝΣ ΚΝ ΘΥ |
| 𝔓22 (P. Oxy. 1228) | 200–250
|
ΠΣ ΠΝΑ ΠΡΣ ΠΡΑ ΙΗΣ ΑΝΟΣ |
| 𝔓24 (P. Oxy. 1230) | ~300
|
ΠΝΑ ΘΥ |
| 𝔓27 (P. Oxy. 1395) | 200–250
|
ΘΥ ΚΩ |
| 𝔓28 (P. Oxy. 1596) | 255–300
|
ΙΣ ΙΝ |
| 𝔓29 (P. Oxy. 1597) | 200–250
|
ΘΣ ΘΝ |
| 𝔓30 (P. Oxy. 1598) | 200–250
|
ΚΥ ΚΝ ΘΩ ΙΗΥ |
| 𝔓32 (P. Rylands 5) | 150–200
|
ΘΥ |
| 𝔓35 (PSI 1) | ~300
|
ΚΣ ΚΥ |
| 𝔓37 (P. Mich. Inv. 1570) | ~260
|
ΚΕ ΙΗΣ ΠΝΑ ΙΗΣΥ |
| 𝔓38 (P. Mich. Inv. 1571) | ~225
|
ΧΡΝ ΠΝΑ ΚΥ ΙΗΝ ΙΗΥ ΠΝΤΑ |
| 𝔓39 (P. Oxy. 1780) | 200–300
|
ΠΗΡ ΠΡΑ ΙΗΣ |
| 𝔓40 (P. Heidelberg G. 645) | 200–300
|
ΘΣ ΘΥ ΘΝ ΙΥ ΧΩ ΧΥ |
| 𝔓45 (P. Chester Beatty I) | ~250
|
ΚΕ ΚΣ ΚΝ ΚΥ ΙΗ ΙΥ ΙΗΣ ΠΡ ΠΡΣ ΠΡΑ ΠΡΙ ΘΥ ΘΝ ΘΩ ΘΣ ΠΝΙ ΠΝΣ ΠΝΑ ΥΝ ΥΕ ΥΣ ΥΩ Σ⳨Ν Σ⳨ΝΑΙ ΧΥ |
| 𝔓46 (P. Chester Beatty II + P. Mich. Inv. 6238) |
175–225
|
ΚΕ ΚΝ ΚΥ ΚΩ ΚΣ ΧΡΩ ΧΡΥ ΧΡΝ ΧΝ ΧΣ ΧΩ ΧΥ ΧΡΣ ΙΗΥ ΙΗΝ ΙΗΣ ΘΩ ΘΥ ΘΝ ΘΣ
ΠΝΑ ΠΝΙ ΠΝΣ ΥΙΥ ΥΙΝ ΥΙΣ ΥΝ ΣΤΡΕΣ ΣΤΡΝ ΣΤΡΩ ΣΤΡΟΣ ΣΤΡΟΥ ΕΣΤΡΟΝ ΕΣΤΡΑΙ ΕΣΤΑΝ ΣΤΟΥ ΑΙΜΑ ΑΝΟΥ ΑΝΟΝ ΑΝΟΣ ΑΝΩΝ ΑΝΟΙΣ ΠΡΙ ΠΗΡ ΠΡΑ ΠΡΣ ΙΥ |
| 𝔓47 (P. Chester Beatty III) | 200–300
|
ΘΥ ΘΣ ΘΝ ΘΩ ΑΘΝ ΚΣ ΚΕ ΚΥ ΕΣΤΡΩ ΠΝΑ ΧΥ ΠΡΣ |
| 𝔓48 (PSI 1165) | 200–300
|
ΥΣ |
| 𝔓49 (P. Yale 415 + 531) | 200–300
|
ΚΩ ΘΥ ΘΣ ΙΥ ΠΝ ΧΣ ΧΥ ΧΩ |
| 𝔓50 (P. Yal 1543) | ~300
|
ΙΛΗΜ ΠΝΑ ΑΝΟΣ ΘΣ ΘΥ |
| 𝔓53 (P. Mich. inv. 6652) | ~250
|
ΠΡΣ ΙΗΣ ΠΕΡ ΚΝ |
| 𝔓64 (Gr. 17) | ~150
|
ΙΣ ΚΕ |
| 𝔓65 (PSI XIV 1373) | ~250
|
ΧΥ ΘΣ |
| 𝔓66 (P. Bodmer II + Inv. Nr. 4274/4298) |
150–200
|
ΚΣ ΚΥ ΚΕ ΘΣ ΘΝ ΘΥ ΘΩ ΙΣ ΙΝ ΙΥ ΧΣ ΧΝ ΧΥ ΥΣ ΥΝ ΥΩ ΠΝΑ ΠΝΙ ΠΝΣ
ΠΗΡ ΠΡΑ ΠΡΣ ΠΡΙ ΠΕΡ ΠΡΕΣ ΑΝΟΣ ΑΝΟΝ ΑΝΟΥ ΑΝΩΝ ΑΝΩ ΑΝΟΙΣ ΑΝΟΥΣ Σ⳨Ω Σ⳨ΟΝ Σ⳨ΟΥ Σ⳨ΘΗ Σ⳨ΑΤΕ Σ⳨ΩΣΩ ΕΣ⳨ΑΝ ΕΣ⳨ΘΗ |
| 𝔓69 (P. Oxy. 2383) | ~200
|
ΙΗΝ |
| 𝔓70 (P. Oxy. 2384 + PSI Inv. CNR 419, 420) |
250–300
|
ΥΝ ΙΣ ΠΗΡ |
| 𝔓72 (P. Bodmer VII and VIII) | 200–300
|
ΙΥ ΙΗΥ ΙΗΝ ΧΡΥ ΧΡΝ ΧΡΣ ΧΡΩ ΘΥ ΘΣ ΘΝ ΘΩ ΠΡΣ ΠΑΡ ΠΤΡΑ ΠΡΙ ΠΝΣ
ΠΝΑ ΠΝΑΙ ΠΝΙ ΠΝΤΙ ΚΥ ΚΣ ΚΝ ΚΩ ΑΝΟΙ |
| 𝔓75 (P. Bodmer XIV and XV) | 175–225
|
ΙΣ ΙΗΣ ΙΥ ΙΗΥ ΙΝ ΙΗΝ ΘΣ ΘΝ ΘΥ ΘΩ ΚΣ ΚΝ ΚΥ ΚΩ ΚΕ ΧΣ ΧΝ ΧΥ
ΠΝΑ ΠΝΣ ΠΝΙ ΠΝΟΣ ΠΝΤΑ ΠΝΑΣΙ ΠΝΑΤΩΝ ΠΡΣ ΠΗΡ ΠΡΑ ΠΡΙ ΠΡΟΣ ΠΡ ΥΣ ΥΝ ΥΥ ΙΗΛ ΙΛΗΜ Σ⳨ΟΝ ΣΤ⳨ΟΝ Σ⳨ΩΘΗΝΑΙ ΑΝΟΣ ΑΝΟΝ ΑΝΟΥ ΑΝΟΙ ΑΝΩΝ ΑΝΩ ΑΝΟΥΣ ΑΝΟΙΣ ΑΝΕ |
| 𝔓78 (P. Oxy 2684) | 250–300
|
ΚΝ ΙΗΝ ΙΗΝ ΧΡΝ |
| 𝔓90 (P. Oxy 3523) | 150–200
|
ΙΗΣ |
| 𝔓91 (P. Mil. Vogl. Inv. 1224 + P. Macquarie Inv. 360) | ~250
|
ΘΥ ΘΣ ΠΡΣ ΧΡΝ ΙΗΝ |
| 𝔓92 (P. Narmuthis 69.39a + 69.229a) | ~300
|
ΧΡΩ ΚΥ ΘΥ |
| 𝔓100 (P. Oxy 4449) | ~300
|
ΚΥ ΚΣ |
| 𝔓101 (P. Oxy 4401) | 200–300
|
ΥΣ ΠΝΑ ΠΝΙ |
| 𝔓106 (P. Oxy 4445) | 200–250
|
ΠΝΑ ΠΝΙ ΧΡΣ ΙΗΝ ΙΗΣ |
| 𝔓108 (P. Oxy 4447) | 175–225
|
ΙΗΣ ΙΗΝ |
| 𝔓110 (P. Oxy. 4494) | ~300
|
ΚΣ |
| 𝔓111 (P. Oxy 4495) | 200–250
|
ΙΗΥ |
| 𝔓113 (P. Oxy. 4497) | 200–250
|
ΠΝΙ |
| 𝔓114 (P. Oxy. 4498) | 200–250
|
ΘΣ |
| 𝔓115 (P. Oxy. 4499) | 225–275
|
ΙΗΛ ΑΥΤΟΥ ΠΡΣ ΘΩ ΘΥ ΑΝΩΝ ΠΝΑ ΟΥΝΟΥ ΟΥΝΟΝ ΚΥ ΘΝ ΑΝΟΥ ΟΥΝΩ |
| 𝔓121 (P. Oxy. 4805) | ~250
|
ΙΣ ΜΗΙ |
| 𝔓137 (P. Oxy. 5345) | 100-200
|
ΠΝΙ |
| 0162 (P. Oxy 847) | ~300
|
ΙΗΣ ΙΣ ΠΡΣ |
| 0171 (PSI 2.124) | ~300
|
ΚΣ ΙΗΣ |
| 0189 (P. Berlin 11765) | ~200
|
ΑΝΟΣ ΠΝΑ ΚΥ ΚΩ ΙΛΗΜ ΘΩ ΙΣΗΛ |
| 0220 (MS 113) | ~300
|
ΚΝ ΙΥ ΙΝ ΧΥ ΘΥ |
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b Metzger, Bruce Manning (1981). Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Palaeography. Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-19-536532-0.
In the developed Byzantine usage the fifteen nomina sacra in their nominative and genitive forms are as follows: [...] Scholars differ in accounting for the origin and development of the system of nomina sacra.
- ^ Comfort, Philip Wesley; Barrett, David (2001). Text of the Earliest New Testament Greek Manuscripts (2 ed.). Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers. pp. 34–35. ISBN 0-8423-5265-1.
- ^ Charlesworth, S. D. (2006). "Consensus standardization in the systematic approach to nomina sacra in second- and third-century gospel manuscripts". Aegyptus. 86: 37–38.
- ^ a b c d Hurtado, Larry Weir (2006). The Earliest Christian Artifacts: Manuscripts and Christian Origins. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0802828957.
- ^ Hurtado, Larry Weir (1998). "The Origin of the Nomina Sacra: A Proposal". Journal of Biblical Literature. 117: 655–673.
- ^ Wilkinson, Robert J. (2015). Tetragrammaton: Western Christians and the Hebrew Name of God: From the Beginnings to the Seventeenth Century. Netherlands: Brill. p. 55.
- ^ Roberts, Colin Henderson (1979). Manuscript, Society, and Belief in Early Christian Egypt. London: Oxford University Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-19-725982-0.
- ^ Larry W. Hurtado (2017). "The origin of the Nomina Sacra". Texts and Artefacts: Selected Essays on Textual Criticism and Early Christian Manuscripts, The Library of New Testament Studies. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 127. ISBN 978-0567677709.
- ^ Breytenbach, Cilliers; Zimmermann, Christiane (2018). Early Christianity in Lycaonia and Adjacent Areas: From Paul to Amphilochius of Iconium. Leiden: Brill. p. 14. ISBN 9789004352520.
- ^ All nomina sacra and dates of manuscripts taken from Text of the Earliest New Testament Greek Manuscripts - Philip Comfort and David Barrett (2001)
Further reading
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- Don C. Barker, "P.Lond.Lit. 207 and the origin of the nomina sacra: a tentative proposal", Studia Humaniora Tartuensia 8.A.2, 2007, 1–14.
- Philip Comfort, Encountering the Manuscripts: An Introduction to New Testament Paleography and Textual Criticism, Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005, pp. 199–253.
- A.H.R.E. Paap, Nomina Sacra in the Greek Papyri of the First Five Centuries, Papyrologica Lugduno-Batava VIII (Leiden 1959).
- Ludwig Traube. Nomina Sacra. Versuch einer Geschichte der christlichen Kürzung, Munich 1907.