Wikipedia

Nicarao people

The Nicarao are an Indigenous Nahua people who live in western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9] They are the southernmost Nahua group located at the southern frontier of Mesoamerica. They spoke the Nahuat language before it went extinct in both countries after Spanish conquest.[10][11]

Nicarao
Nahua community in Rivas, Nicaragua
Nahua community in Rivas, Nicaragua
Nahua community in Rivas, Nicaragua.
Total population
20,000+
Regions with significant populations
Western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica
 NicaraguaEstimated 20,000[1][2]
 Costa Rica~1000
Languages
Nawat, Nicaraguan Spanish
Religion
Predominantly Roman Catholic
Related ethnic groups
Nahuas, Pipil people, Mexica

The Nicarao are descended from Toltecs who migrated from North America and central and southern Mexico over the course of several centuries from approximately 700 CE onwards.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] This branch of the Nahua originated in Chiapas, which was inhabited by Nahuat-speaking Toltecs for hundreds of years before they migrated further into Central America.[21][10][22][23][24][25][26][27] Around 1200 CE, the Nicarao split from the Pipil people, moved into what is now Nicaragua, seized most of the fertile lands in the area, and eventually separated and formed their own chiefdoms.[28][29][30] The migration of the Nicarao has been linked to the collapse of the important central-Mexican cities of Teotihuacan and Tula, as well as the Classic Maya collapse. The Nicarao settled throughout western Nicaragua, inhabiting Rivas, Jinotega, Chinandega, Nueva Segovia, Masaya, Madriz, Matagalpa, Esteli, Leon, Granada and Managua. In addition the Nicarao controlled Tiger Lagoon, Lake Xolotlan, Lake Nicaragua, and the islands of Ometepe and Zapatera.[31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38] The Nicarao also settled in Bagaces, Costa Rica after displacing the Huetar people who were already there, resulting in tribal warfare between the Nahuas and the Huetares which lasted until Spanish arrival.[39][40]

The Nicarao called their land Nicānāhuac which means "here lies Anahuac" in Nahuatl and is a combination of the words Nican (here),[41] and Ānāhuac, which in turn is a combination of the words atl (water) and nahuac, a locative meaning "surrounded". Therefore the literal translation of Nicanahuac is "here surrounded by water".[42][43][44][45][46] It is a geographical name that refers to the large bodies of water surrounding the land they inhabited, the Pacific Ocean, lakes Nicaragua and Xolotlan, and the rivers and lagoons.[47][48] In addition the term "Nicarao" was not what the Nahuas of Nicaragua called themselves, in fact the term is considered an insult to their community. Nicarao was a derogatory term imposed on them by the conquistadors as a form of mockery.[49][50]

As a Mesoamerican group, the Nicarao shared many blended cultural traits with both indigenous North American and Mexican belief systems as well as their Toltec parent tribe, including an identical Toltec calendar, similar pottery and effigies, similar organizational treaties, the use of screenfold books, the worship of the Great Spirit and closely related sky deities, Nagual mysticism, the practice of animal and Tonal spirituality, and expertise in medical practice.[51][52][53][54][55]

History and Spanish contact

edit
 
Monument to Macuilmiquiztli, Nahua chief of Kwawkapolkan

After the Nicarao split from the Pipils and migrated further south into what is now western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica, they waged war and displaced many neighboring tribes including the Cacaoperas, the Chorotegas, and the Huetares.[56][57][58] In addition the Nicarao enslaved and captured Cacaoperas for human sacrifice and further displaced them from Jinotega, Esteli, Boaco, and parts of Matagalpa, particularly the Sebaco valley, one of the most fertile areas in Nicaragua which the Nicarao still inhabit today.[59][60][61][62]

Although the Nicarao displaced rival tribes through warfare, they also developed trade relations with smaller tribes, maintaining hegemony over the region through military superiority and commerce.[63] In 1501 CE, after the Tlahtoani of Tenochtitlan Ahuizotl sent groups of pochtecas to explore and establish relations with the indigenous peoples of Central America, commercial relations developed between the Mexica and the Nicarao.[64] Commercial exchange between the Mexica and the Nicarao continued to flourish after Moctezuma II ascended to the throne of Tenochtitlan as Mexica merchants traded and thrived within Nicarao territory.[65]

At the time of Spanish contact, a Nicarao chief named Macuilmiquiztli, meaning "Five Deaths" in the Nahuatl language, conversed with Spanish conquistador Gil González Dávila through Tlaxcallan translators.[66][67][68][69] Macuilmiquiztli governed the Nicarao chiefdom of Kwawkapolkan, not far from the modern town of Rivas,[70] and initially welcomed the Spanish and their Tlaxcallan translators. However, Dávila and his army used the opportunity to gather gold and baptize some of the Nahuas along the way. Realizing the threat that the Spanish imposed, Macuilmiquiztli waged war against the invaders, and Nicarao warriors forced Dávila and his men to retreat to Panama.[71][72][73] The Nicarao civilization came to an end during the Spanish conquest of Nicaragua in 1524 CE, when Nicaragua was invaded on all sides by several Spanish forces, each led by a conquistador. González Dávila was authorized by royal decree and came in from the Caribbean coast of Honduras. Francisco Hernández de Córdoba at the command of the governor of Panama approached from Costa Rica. Pedro de Alvarado at the command of Hernán Cortés, came from Guatemala through San Salvador and Honduras.[74] By 1529, the Nicarao had completely fallen, and suffered a devastating demographic and societal collapse from a combination of disease, war against the Spanish and their Tlaxcallan allies, and being sold into slavery.[75][76][77]

Chiefdoms and political organization

edit

According to Spanish conquistador and historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, the Nicarao had multiple chiefdoms that were independent from one another.[78][79] In addition, although these chiefdoms shared the same language, culture, and ethnicity, they were never unified under a single political entity as Kuskatan was in present-day El Salvador.

The most powerful Nicarao chiefdom was Kwawkapolkan, which means "place of capulín trees" in Nawat.[80] It's a combination of the Nawat words Kwawit (tree),[81][82] kapol (capulín),[21][83] and -kan (a locative meaning "place of"). Kwawkapolkan was also the southernmost Nicarao chiefdom that extended from Rivas down to Bagaces in central Guanacaste in Costa Rica. Kwawkapolkan bordered it's ally Kakawatan in Rivas, the Kingdom of Nicoya, a powerful civilization in Guanacaste and the Nicoya Peninsula, and the Huetares and Voto people of northern Costa Rica.[84][85]

Kakawatan was a Nahua chiefdom located in what is now the Rivas department of southwestern Nicaragua.[86] The Nahuas of Kakawatan were known as "kakawatecos", meaning "people of Kakawatan".[87] Kakawatan had close relations with Kwawkapolkan as before spanish arrival, both chiefdoms had a military alliance against the Chorotegas.[88][89] The name Kakawatan is a combination of the Nawat words kakaw (Cacao),[21] at (water), and -tan (locative suffix meaning near/place of/with).[90] Therefore Kakawatan translates to "place with abundant cacao water", referring to chocolate drinks, one the most important aspects of Nicarao culture.[91][92] This tradition is still practiced in the communities of Rivas among the descendants of the Nahuas both indigenous and mestizos alike.[93]

Tekwantepet was a small but militarily strong chiefdom located in present-day Managua, and was one of the last chiefdoms to fall to the conquistadors.[94][95] The etymology is a combination of the Nawat words tēkwani (jaguar),[21] and tepet (hill),[96] which translates to "jaguar hill" or "hill of jaguars". The city of Ticuantepe in Managua is likely named after this chiefdom.

Masatepet was located in what is now Masaya in central west Nicaragua, and coexisted with the Chorotegas who also inhabited the area. The name Masatepet is a combination of the Nawat words Masat (deer),[21] and -tepet (hill). The literal translation of Masatepet is "deer hill".[97] The Nahuas of Masatepet inhabited Nindiri, Niquinohomo, Monimbó, and Masatepe which is named after this chiefdom.[98]

Xinotepet was located in what is now Carazo of central west Nicaragua, close to both Masatepet and Kwawkapolkan. Xinotepet coexisted with the Chorotegas who also inhabited much of the land now part of the Carazo department. The etymology of the first half of the name is unknown, however the second half of the name comes from the Nawat word -tepet (hill),[99] The city of Jinotepe is named after this chiefdom.

Teswatlan was located in northwestern Nicaragua, specifically Chinandega.[100][101][102] Teswatlan means "Place of Tezhuate". Fernandez de Oviedo described Teswatlan as a chiefdom filled with maize, in addition to Akatekwtli's son ascending to the throne after his death during Spanish conquest.[103][104]

Chinantlan was the northernmost Nicarao chiefdom that bordered the Lencas of southwestern Honduras, the pre-Columbian relations between the Lencas and the Chinantecs are unknown. Chinantlan was located in Chinandega and had close relations with Teswatlan. Chinantlan means "place surrounded by reeds" in Nahuatl. A Nicarao from Chinantlan was called a Chinantecatl meaning "person from Chinantlán".[105][106][107]

Origin and distribution

edit
 
Spiral petroglyphs found at ancient Nicarao settlements on Ometepe Island, Nicaragua.

The Nicarao people migrated south from North America and central and southern Mexico over the course of several centuries from approximately 700 CE onwards. Around 1200 CE, the Nicarao split from the Pipil people and moved into what is now Nicaragua. The beginning of this series of migrations was likely to have been linked to the collapse of the great central-Mexican city of Teotihuacan, and later with the collapse of the Toltec city of Tula.[108] The dating of Nicarao arrival in what is now Nicaragua has also been linked to the Classic Maya collapse, with the cessation of Maya influence in the region, and the rise of cultural traits originating in the Valley of Mexico.[109] The Nicarao had a sizeable population concentrated in nucleated villages all over western Nicaragua and what is now northwestern Costa Rica.[110][111] They displaced both the Chorotega and the Cacaopera that had previously settled the region; evidence shows some of their culture was integrated into their own.[112][113] The Nicarao appear to have seized control of the most productive land around the western portions of Lake Nicaragua, Ometepe, and the Gulf of Fonseca.[114] The area now covered by Rivas Department appears to have been conquered by the Nicarao shortly before the Spanish conquest.[115][52]

A remnant Nahuat-speaking population existed as late as the mid-19th century, but the Nicarao as a tribal Confederation are now extinct.[110] Today Nicaragua is estimated to have around 20,000 Nicarao people, though displaced by Spanish conquest. In Costa Rica the Nicarao population ranges from several hundred to 1000 and are primarily located in the Bagaces Canton, with smaller pockets inhabiting other parts of Guanacaste. Some of their practices and beliefs continue to survive among their descendants within the Nahua communities of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

Major settlements

edit
 
Nicarao vase depicting Quetzalcoatl (800-1350 CE), near the Asososca lagoon (Managua), Nicaragua

At the time of contact with the Spanish, the Nicarao were governed from their capital at Quauhcapolca, near the modern town of Rivas. Other principal settlements included Ometepe, Asososca Lagoon (Managua), Mistega, Ochomogo, Oxmorio, Papagayo, Tecoatega, Teoca, Totoaca, and Xoxoyota.[116]

Culture

edit
 
A pre-Columbian Nicarao effigy of a Techichi, Rivas, Nicaragua.

Like most other Nahua groups, the Nicarao were agriculturalists, and cultivated maize, cacao, tomatoes, avocados, squash, beans, and chili.[117][118][119][120][121] Modern Nicaraos continue to be mainly farmers and agriculturalists and contribute to the cultivation of countless fruits and crops. In the Masaya department, cocoa production continues to be dominated by the Nicaraos.[122][123] Chocolate was fundamental to pre-Columbian Nicarao culture as it was drunk during special ceremonies in addition to cocoa beans being used as their currency.[124] The Nicarao also dined on various meats such as turkey, deer, iguana, mute dogs, and fish from the sea, rivers, lakes and lagoons.[125][126] The Nicarao had elaborate markets and permanent temples indicating some level of expertise in architecture, which have since been completely destroyed by the Spanish.[127][128] Many of the Nicarao were artisans with expertise in crafts such as pottery and goldsmithing.[129] Tattoo artistry across the face and body was prized among the Nicarao, as observed by the Spanish and reflected in effigies and clay artwork they created; this trait was shared by neighboring Nicoyan tribes to the south as well as the Maya people to the north.[129][130][131] Among the Nicarao, highly specialized tattoo artists were expert and lived by their skills.[132] The Nicarao also practiced stonecraft, as evidenced by elaborate petroglyphs of spirals, murals and spiritual figures carved and painted onto stones in Ometepe; this was shared by the Chorotega and other pre-Columbian civilizations in the region.[133]

 
A pre-Columbian effigy found in the Nicoyan Peninsula, 500-800 EC.
 
Depiction of a Pipil warrior, notice the spear and the thick padded cotton armor extending down to his knees, equipment that Nicarao warriors used.

Although not much is known about the military forces of Nicanahuac, the Nicarao did have a warrior tradition. Nicarao warriors wore long and thick padded cotton armor that extended down to their thighs and knees, fought with spears, atlatls, bow and arrows, clubs edged with stone blades, knives and daggers with obsidian blades, and macanas, a wooden sword edged with obsidian blades similar to the Aztec macahuitl.[134][135]

Spanish chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, writing soon after the conquest, recorded that the Nicarao practised cranial modification, by binding the heads of young children between two pieces of wood. Archaeologists have unearthed pre-Columbian burials in the former Nicarao region with evidence of both cranial and dental modification.[136] The Nicarao possessed a number of cultural traits in common with North American tribes as well as the Toltecs of central Mexico, including an identical calendar, the use of screenfold books, worship of the Great Spirit and a Toltec pantheon of deities such as sky spirits, animal spirits and Tonal mythology, Nagual mysticism, and treaties.[137][138][53] They also, in common with their Mexican cousins from Aztec culture, practiced ritual confession, and the volador (flying men) ritual.[139][140]

Legacy

edit

Despite their massive decrease in population and the loss of their native language in the aftermath of Spanish conquest, the Nicarao, and their culture, are still an integral part of Nicaraguan identity as they formed the ethnic foundation of the country.[141] Most western Nicaraguans have Nahua ancestry, as proven through DNA analysis.[142][143] Towns, lakes, islands, and volcanoes bear their place names.[144] The etymology of the country's name derives from their native language.[145][146][147][148][149][150] Nicaraguan Spanish has been heavily influenced by their native language.[151][152][153][154][155][156] Nicaraguan cuisine such as the nacatamal and indio viejo both of which originated from the Nicarao has also cemented itself in the legacy of Nicaraguan gastronomy.[157][158][159][160]

Notes

edit
  1. ^ "Indigenous peoples in Nicaragua".
  2. ^ Nicaragua. https://minorityrights.org/country/nicaragua/
  3. ^ "Nicarao".
  4. ^ Newson, Linda A.; Bonilla, Adolfo (2021). Las culturas indígenas y su medioambiente. Uol Insti for the Study of the Americas. pp. 21–54. ISBN 978-1-908857-87-3. JSTOR j.ctv1qr6sk7.7.
  5. ^ "Central American Nahua".
  6. ^ "The Kingdom of this world".
  7. ^ Peralta, De; M, Manuel (1901). "The Aboriginals of Costa Rica". Journal de la Société des Américanistes. 3 (2): 125–139. doi:10.3406/jsa.1901.3365.
  8. ^ "Do you know the origin of the word Guanacaste". 25 July 2018.
  9. ^ "Guanacaste is a practically autonomous ethnolinguistic area and different from the rest of the country". 22 July 2020.
  10. ^ a b Mc Callister, Rick (2013). "Náwat – y no náhuatl. El náwat centroamericano y sus sabores: Náwat pipil y náwat nicarao". Revista Caratula.
  11. ^ Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (1994). "Las lenguas de la Gran Nicoya". Revista Vínculos. 18–19. Museo Nacional de Costa Rica: 191–208.
  12. ^ "Nicarao".
  13. ^ "Migraciones de lengua Náhuatl hacia Centroamérica".
  14. ^ Brinton, Daniel G. (1887). "Were the Toltecs an Historic Nationality". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 24 (126): 229–241. JSTOR 983071.
  15. ^ "Las migraciones nahuas de México a Nicaragua según las fuentes históricas". 29 April 2006.
  16. ^ "The pre-Hispanic Indigenous cultures of Nicaragua and Costa Rica" (PDF).
  17. ^ "The pre-Hispanic World of Nicaragua" (PDF).
  18. ^ "Ensayos Nicaragüenses" (PDF).
  19. ^ "National Autonomous University of Nicaragua" (PDF).
  20. ^ "The Toltecs".
  21. ^ a b c d e Campbell, Lyle (January 1, 1985). The Pipil Language of El Salvador. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 10–12. ISBN 978-3-11-088199-8.
  22. ^ "Toltec Culture". 27 August 2015.
  23. ^ "Toltecs".
  24. ^ "The Toltec Empire". 23 May 2020.
  25. ^ Macri, Martha J.; Looper, Matthew G. (2003). "NAHUA IN ANCIENT MESOAMERICA: Evidence from Maya inscriptions". Ancient Mesoamerica. 14 (2): 285–297. doi:10.1017/S0956536103142046 (inactive 1 November 2024). JSTOR 26308175. S2CID 162601312.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  26. ^ "Chichen Itza: The Tollan of the Yucatan".
  27. ^ "Toltec".
  28. ^ Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar océano; por el Capitán Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés; Primer Cronista del Nuevo Mundo; publícala la Real Academia de la Historia.- Tomo IV.- Libro XLII.- Capitulo XIII.
  29. ^ Manuel Orozco y Berra (1864). "Geografía de las lenguas y carta etnográfica de México: precedidas de un ensayo de clasificación de las mismas lenguas y de apuntes para las inmigraciones de las tribus" (PDF). Retrieved 16 March 2014.
  30. ^ Fowler 1985, p. 37.
  31. ^ "National Autonomous University of Nicaragua" (PDF).
  32. ^ Preparation of a hygiene plan for the Nicaraos microenterprise cocoa industry in the department of Masaya.
  33. ^ "Municipality of San Jose de Cusmapa". 18 June 2020.
  34. ^ "Nahoas. Territorio indígena y gobernanza".
  35. ^ "Laguna de Asososca: The Ultimate Guide to This Hidden Gem". 20 April 2022.
  36. ^ "Laguna de Asososca o Laguna del Tigre".
  37. ^ "Nicaraguan Anthropology". 31 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2016-08-09.
  38. ^ "Culture of Esteli". 26 August 2020.
  39. ^ Brinton, Daniel G. (1897). "The Ethnic Affinities of the Guetares of Costa Rica". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 36 (156): 496–498. JSTOR 983406.
  40. ^ Rojas, Eugenia Ibarra (2011). "The Nicarao, The Voto Indians and the Huetares In Conflict". Cuadernos de Antropología. 21.
  41. ^ "Nahuatl Dictionary".
  42. ^ "Etymology of Nicaragua".
  43. ^ "Nicaraguan place names" (PDF).
  44. ^ "Origin of the names of the Latin American countries". 8 February 2017.
  45. ^ "The curious story of the origin of the names of Latin American countries". 16 February 2022.
  46. ^ "Nicaragua". 11 July 2024.
  47. ^ "Geographical Names as Cultural Heritage" (PDF).
  48. ^ "February 2007" (PDF).
  49. ^ "Etymology of Nicaragua".
  50. ^ "Ensayos Nicaragüenses" (PDF).
  51. ^ Eagle, Obsidian (2020-11-25). "Who Were The Toltecs?". Medium. Retrieved 2022-03-09.
  52. ^ a b Manion, Jessica (2016). "Remembering the Ancestors: Mortuary Practices and Social Memory in Pacific Nicaragua" (PDF). University of Calgary. Retrieved March 9, 2022.
  53. ^ a b Frost, Melissa June (August 10, 2017). "Herbs That Madden, Herbs That Cure: A History of Hallucinogenic Plant Use in Colonial Mexico" (PDF). University of Virginia. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
  54. ^ Fowler, William R. (1989-01-01). "The Cultural Evolution of Ancient Nahua Civilizations The Pipil Nicarao of Central America". The Cultural Evolution of Ancient Nahua Civilizations the Pipil Nicarao of Central America.
  55. ^ De Burgos, Hugo (2014). "Contemporary Transformations of Indigenous Medicine and Ethnic Identity". Anthropologica. 56 (2): 399–413. JSTOR 24467313.
  56. ^ Brinton, Daniel G. (1897). "The Ethnic Affinities of the Guetares of Costa Rica". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 36 (156): 496–498. JSTOR 983406.
  57. ^ Rojas, Eugenia Ibarra (2011). "The Nicarao, The Voto Indians and the Huetares In Conflict". Cuadernos de Antropología. 21.
  58. ^ Fowler, William R. (1985). "Ethnohistoric Sources on the Pipil-Nicarao of Central America: A Critical Analysis". Ethnohistory. 32 (1): 37–62. doi:10.2307/482092. JSTOR 482092.
  59. ^ Ibarra Rojas, 1994, p. 236
  60. ^ "Nahoas. Territorio indígena y gobernanza".
  61. ^ "Naked Boaco".
  62. ^ "Culture of Esteli". 26 August 2020.
  63. ^ "Nicarao".
  64. ^ Duran (1867–1880). Historia de los Indios de Nueva España. p. 402.
  65. ^ Duran (1867–1880). Historia de los Indios de Nueva España. p. 402.
  66. ^ "Nicarao"
  67. ^ "Encuentro"
  68. ^ Sánchez, Edwin (October 3, 2016). "De Macuilmiquiztli al Güegüence pasando por Fernando Silva" [From Macuilmiquizli to Güegüence through Fernando Silva]. El 19 (in Spanish). Retrieved April 12, 2017.
  69. ^ Silva, Fernando (March 15, 2003). "Macuilmiquiztli". El Nuevo Diario (in Spanish). Retrieved April 12, 2017.
  70. ^ McCafferty and McCafferty 2009, p. 186.
  71. ^ "Fruit and Axes of Gold Consuming Indigenous Heritages in Nicaragua".
  72. ^ "The Testimonies and Origins of the Nicaraos" (PDF).
  73. ^ "Who Were the People of Greater Nicoya".
  74. ^ Duncan, David Ewing, Hernando de Soto – A Savage Quest in the Americas – Book II: Consolidation, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, 1995
  75. ^ "The Tlaxcalan Memory of the Conquest".
  76. ^ "Nicarao".
  77. ^ "When Tlaxcalan Natives Went to War in the Philippines". Latino Book Review. Retrieved 2024-03-16.
  78. ^ Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar océano; por el Capitán Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés; Primer Cronista del Nuevo Mundo; publícala la Real Academia de la Historia.- Tomo IV.- Libro XLII.- Capitulo XIII.
  79. ^ Manuel Orozco y Berra (1864). "Geografía de las lenguas y carta etnográfica de México: precedidas de un ensayo de clasificación de las mismas lenguas y de apuntes para las inmigraciones de las tribus" (PDF). Retrieved 16 March 2014.
  80. ^ "Cocibolca y Xolotlán: Relectura de sus toponimias indígenas" (PDF).
  81. ^ "Pipil (Nahuat) talking dictionary: tree".
  82. ^ "living dictionaries: pipil nahuat: tree".
  83. ^ "The history of the word for Cacao in ancient Mesoamerica".
  84. ^ Brinton, Daniel G. (1897). "The Ethnic Affinities of the Guetares of Costa Rica". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 36 (156): 496–498. JSTOR 983406.
  85. ^ Rojas, Eugenia Ibarra (2011). "The Nicarao, The Voto Indians and the Huetares In Conflict". Cuadernos de Antropología. 21.
  86. ^ Vida de González Dávila, Gil. Ávila, c. 1480 – 21.IV.1526. Descubridor y conquistador. et al., 2012
  87. ^ Colonización de américa, cuando la historia marcha, de Oviedo y Valdés, Gonzalo c. 1480 - 1557, 2006
  88. ^ Ibarra Rojas, 1994
  89. ^ Vida de González Dávila, Gil. Ávila, c. 1480 – 21.IV.1526. Descubridor y conquistador. et al., 2012
  90. ^ "El Nawat de Cuzcatlan".
  91. ^ "Chocolate in Mesoamerica A Cultural History of Cacao" (PDF).
  92. ^ Bergmann, John F. (1969). "The Distribution of Cacao Cultivation in Pre-Columbian America". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 59 (1): 85–96. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1969.tb00659.x. JSTOR 2569524.
  93. ^ ""Drink Chocolate" Festival in Rivas celebrating our precious ancestral grain".
  94. ^ Colonización de américa, cuando la historia marcha, de Oviedo y Valdés, Gonzalo c. 1480 - 1557, 2006
  95. ^ Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar océano; por el Capitán Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés; Primer Cronista del Nuevo Mundo; publícala la Real Academia de la Historia.- Tomo IV.- Libro XLII.- Capitulo XIII.
  96. ^ "El Nawat de Cuzcatlan".
  97. ^ "El Nawat de Cuzcatlan".
  98. ^ Carmack, Robert (2017). The Indigenous People of Mesoamerica and Central America. Lexington Books. pp. 81–83. ISBN 9781498558976.
  99. ^ "El Nawat de Cuzcatlan".
  100. ^ Lehmann, Walter (1920). "Walter Lehmann, Zentral-Amerika, 2 V., p.1003, Berlín, 1920".
  101. ^ Lehmann, Walter (1920). "Walter Lehmann, Zentral-Amerika, 2 V., p.1003, Berlín, 1920".
  102. ^ "Raíces Nahuatl En El Idioma Nicaraguense" (PDF).
  103. ^ (Fernández de Oviedo 1959:Vol.IV:427-30, Vol.V:Lám.XIV).
  104. ^ Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar océano; por el Capitán Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés; Primer Cronista del Nuevo Mundo; publícala la Real Academia de la Historia; Tercera Parte.- Tomo IV.- Libro XLII.- Capítulo XI.
  105. ^ "Chinandega".
  106. ^ "Chinandega".
  107. ^ "Chinandega".
  108. ^ Fowler 1985, p. 37. Healy 1980, 2006a, p. 339.
  109. ^ Healy 1980, 2006a, p. 337.
  110. ^ a b Fowler 1985, p. 38.
  111. ^ Healy 1980, 2006a, p.338.
  112. ^ McCafferty and McCafferty 2009, p. 186.
  113. ^ admin (2024-03-24). "Ometepe". Latin America Tourist Guide. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  114. ^ Salamanca 2012, p. 14.
  115. ^ Healy 1980, 2006a, p. 336.
  116. ^ Healy 1980, 2006b, p. 21.
  117. ^ Fowler, 1989
  118. ^ "Chocolate in Mesoamerica A Cultural History of Cacao" (PDF).
  119. ^ "Costa Rican Archaeology and Mesoamerica" (PDF).
  120. ^ Bergmann, John F. (1969). "The Distribution of Cacao Cultivation in Pre-Columbian America". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 59 (1): 85–96. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1969.tb00659.x. JSTOR 2569524.
  121. ^ "NICARAO AND CHOROTEGA GASTRONOMY OF THE 16TH CENTURY" (PDF).
  122. ^ Preparation of a hygiene plan for the Nicaraos microenterprise cocoa industry in the department of Masaya.
  123. ^ "Nicaragua National Report" (PDF).
  124. ^ "NICARAO AND CHOROTEGA GASTRONOMY OF THE 16TH CENTURY" (PDF).
  125. ^ "NICARAO AND CHOROTEGA GASTRONOMY OF THE 16TH CENTURY" (PDF).
  126. ^ "Nicaraguan Themes" (PDF).
  127. ^ "The Kingdom Of This World".
  128. ^ "Costa Rican Archaeology and Mesoamerica" (PDF).
  129. ^ a b Wingfield, Laura (2011). ""Body Art and Greater Nicoyan Identity Through Time"" (PDF). The Society for American Archaeology.
  130. ^ "Body Art".
  131. ^ "Resource: Maya Tattoos".
  132. ^ Fowler, William R. (1989-01-01). "The Cultural Evolution of Ancient Nahua Civilizations The Pipil Nicarao of Central America". The Cultural Evolution of Ancient Nahua Civilizations the Pipil Nicarao of Central America.
  133. ^ admin (2024-03-24). "Ometepe". Latin America Tourist Guide. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  134. ^ Fowler, William R. (1989-01-01). "The Cultural Evolution of Ancient Nahua Civilizations The Pipil Nicarao of Central America". The Cultural Evolution of Ancient Nahua Civilizations the Pipil Nicarao of Central America.
  135. ^ "Costa Rican Archaeology and Mesoamerica" (PDF).
  136. ^ McCafferty and McCafferty 2009, p. 188.
  137. ^ McCafferty 2015, p. 111.
  138. ^ Manion, Jessica (2016). "Remembering the Ancestors: Mortuary Practices and Social Memory in Pacific Nicaragua" (PDF). University of Calgary. Retrieved March 9, 2022.
  139. ^ Healy 1980, 2006b, p. 31.
  140. ^ Frühsorge, Lars (2010). "Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle: Problems of Cultural Continuity and Regional Diversity in the Study of Ancient Maya Deities". University of Hamburg. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
  141. ^ "Nicarao".
  142. ^ Nuñez, C.; Baeta, M.; Sosa, C.; Casalod, Y.; Ge, J.; Budowle, B.; Martínez-Jarreta, B. (2010). "Reconstructing the population history of Nicaragua by means of mtDNA, Y-chromosome STRs, and autosomal STR markers". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 143 (4): 591–600. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21355. PMID 20721944.
  143. ^ "Reconstructing the Population History of Nicaragua by Means of mtDNA, Y-Chromosome STRs, and Autosomal STR Markers" (PDF).
  144. ^ "Nahuatl Placenames In Nicaragua". 25 August 2018.
  145. ^ "Etymology of Nicaragua".
  146. ^ "Nahuatl Dictionary: Letter N".
  147. ^ "Nicaraguan place names" (PDF).
  148. ^ "Origin of the names of the Latin American countries". 8 February 2017.
  149. ^ "The curious story of the origin of the names of Latin American countries". 16 February 2022.
  150. ^ "Nicaragua". 11 July 2024.
  151. ^ "Pipil Words Identified in Nicaraguan Speech" (PDF).
  152. ^ Elliott, A. M. (1884). "The Nahuatl-Spanish Dialect of Nicaragua". The American Journal of Philology. 5 (1): 54–67. doi:10.2307/287421. JSTOR 287421.
  153. ^ "2 Ways Nahuatl Helped Shape Nicaraguan Spanish".
  154. ^ Úbeda, Zobeyda Catalina Zamora. "Current situation of the Nahuatl substrate in Nicaraguan Spanish". Revista Lengua y Literatura. 6 (1): 43–51.
  155. ^ Zamora Úbeda, Zobeyda C. (2022). "El sustrato náhuatl en el español de Nicaragua según el Diccionario de la lengua española". Lengua y Sociedad. 21 (2): 13–26. doi:10.15381/lengsoc.v21i2.22516.
  156. ^ "Situación actual del sustrato náhuatl en el español de Nicaragua".
  157. ^ "THE ACCULTURATION OF THE NICARAO NATIVES IN NICARAGUA".
  158. ^ "Food For Thought". 10 August 2012.
  159. ^ "The Nicaraguan Nacatamal".
  160. ^ "Five Traditional Nicaraguan Food You Must Try".

References

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Nicarao_people&oldid=1254955928"