Petjo, also known as Petjoh, Petjok, Pecok, Petjoek (Javanese: ꦥꦼꦕꦺꦴꦏ꧀, romanized: pecok, lit. 'to cut') is a Dutch-based creole language that originated among the Indos, people of mixed Dutch and Indonesian ancestry in the former Dutch East Indies. The language has influences from Dutch and then depending on the region Javanese, Malay, Sundanese and Betawi. Its speakers presently live mostly in Indonesia and the Netherlands. The language is expected to become gradually extinct by the end of the 21st century, due to Indos' shift toward Indonesian in Indonesia and Dutch in the Netherlands.
| Petjo | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Indonesia, Netherlands |
| Ethnicity | |
Native speakers | "some" (2007)[1] |
Dutch-based creole
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | pey |
| Glottolog | petj1238 |
| ELP | Petjo |
Background
editJust as the Indo (Eurasian) community historically originated from relationships between European males and Indonesian females, its language reflects this same origin. Typified as a mixed-marriage language, the grammar of Petjok is based on the maternal Malay language and the lexicon on the paternal Dutch language.
The main contact mechanisms responsible for the creation of Petjok are lexical re-orientation; selective replication and convergence. The original speakers of the language do not necessarily want to maintain their first language, but rather create a second one. These creative speakers of the language were probably bilingual, but more fluent in the dominant lingua franca i.e., native Malay language, than Dutch language.
In its overall split between grammar and lexicon, the structure of Petjok is very similar to the Media Lengua spoken in Ecuador by the Quechua people, with the critical difference that the much older language, Pecok, has undergone late system morphemes and syntactic blends.
The most important author that published literary work in this language is the Indo (Eurasian) writer Tjalie Robinson.[2]
| Grammatical features | Dutch | Indies Dutch | Pecok | Malay |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dutch | ||||
| Verb Second | + | |||
| Inversion | + | |||
| Copula | + | |||
| Dutch inflection | + | + | ||
| Dutch lexicon | + | + | + | |
| Emphatic PRO | + | |||
| Malay/Indonesian | ||||
| Malay morphology | + | + | ||
| Topic-deletion | + | + | ||
| Malay particles | + | + |
Largely an oral language, there is no standard spelling for the language. Texts may be written using what is known as the old spelling (Ejaan Tempo Dulu) or the Indonesian Enhanced Spelling (Ejaan Yang Disempurnakan). Some spelling differences (new vs old) are: j=dj, u=oe, y=j, c=tj, ny=nj, sy=sj, and kh=ch.
Each urban area with a large Indo community had their own variation of Petjok. For example: the Petjok of Batavia was influenced by a form of Malay which contained many Chinese words, in Bandung, many Sundanese words were used, while in Semarang and Surabaya many Javanese words were in use. Petjo should not be confused with Javindo, a different creole language spoken by Indos in the Dutch East Indies. With the loss of the generation that lived in the Dutch East Indies era, that language has almost died out, but it become identity for Indo descent.[4] In contrast, the colonial society saw the creole languages as a corrupted Dutch which should be corrected as quickly as possible.[5]
| Javindo | Petjo | |
|---|---|---|
| Actor vs non-actor | strong preference for non-actor-oriented sentences | |
| Lexifier language | Dutch | |
| Origin of the Speakers | Semarang | Batavia |
| Substrate language | Javanese | Batavian Malay |
| Speaker as actor indicator | taq, tak, ta` | ku- |
| Hearer as actor | koq | kau- / absent |
| Affixation by suffix | lack of | |
Phonology
editPetjo's phonology is based on the Malay phonology. This means that both words in Malay and in Dutch sound sequences in syllables are lengthened, consonants and vowels are likely to overlap each other (CVCV); some consonants that follow each other (consonant clusters) are most likely to be avoided. The following will give an example of an 'e' which is spoken unstressed (schwa insertion) or the consonant is omitted.[7]
| English | Dutch | Petjo | Indonesian
Cognate |
Indonesian
Synonyms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| headquarters | hoofdbureau | obiro | hopbiro | kantor pusat, markas |
| arrest | arresteren | asseret | arès | menahan |
| syrup | stroop | seterop | setrup | sirup |
Consonants
editConsonant shifts
editThe suprasegmental aspects – word stress and intonation – in Petjo are very similar to Malay; Petjo has a striking zinsmelodie (rhythm) compared to Dutch. In addition, Petjo has a different consonant pronunciation compared to Dutch. Below is a shift in the pronunciation of voiced consonants to voiceless in Petjo.[8]
| Dutch | Petjo | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| z | s | zeg [seg] (say); zwart [swart] (black) |
| v | f | vreemd [freem] (foreign); over [ofer] (about) |
| v/f | p | verlop [perlop] (expire) |
| h | g/ch | huis [chuis] (house); hem [chem] (him) |
| g/ch | h | tegen [tehen] (against); vergeten [verheten] (to forget) |
| j | ie-j | ja [ijo] (yes) |
Consonant blends
editThe combination of consonants also for many Petjo speakers becomes an insurmountable problem. Petjo speakers will usually omit some sounds or add others in between to get a slightly flexible tongue to pronounce a combination of consonants.[7]
| Dutch | Petjo | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| schr | sr | schrik [srik] (fright) |
| nk | ng | denk [deng] (think) |
| e (schwa) | - | luisteren [leist’ren] (listen) |
| - | e (schwa) | straks [sêtêraks] (soon) |
| - | d/t | er in [d’rin] (in it); is er [ister] (is there) |
| t | - | vent [fen] (guy); hond [chon] (dog) |
Vowels
editIn Petjo's pronunciation, all vowels are pronounced nasally. Long and closed sounds are pronounced open or wide. Long sounds are often pronounced shorter and short sounds made longer compared to Dutch pronunciation:[8]
| Dutch | Petjo | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| a | aa | man [maan] (man) |
| oo | o | dood [dhó] (dead) |
| uu | ie | natuurlijk [natierlijk] (naturally) |
| u | i | stuk [stik] (piece) |
| e | aa | geweldig [haaweldih] (awesome) |
Language samples
edit| English | Petjo | Dutch | Indonesian |
|---|---|---|---|
| Where did you get those cigarettes, Ntiet? | Fanwaar rokok-nja, Ntiet? | Waar heb je die sigaretten vandaan, Ntiet? | Dari mana rokoknya, Ntiet?[9] |
| Where are you going Koos? | Jij haat naarwaar Koos? | Waar ga je naar toe Koos? | Kamu mau pergi ke mana, Koos?[10] |
| The clothes that were washed by that woman | Kleren njang di-wassen door die frouw | De kleren die door die vrouw worden gewassen | Pakaian yang dicuci oleh wanita itu[9] |
| See that quid? | Je siet proempie-nja? | Zie je die pruim (pruimtabak)? | Lihat premnya? |
| The water that flows gently | De water, njang stromen sachjes | Het water, dat zachtjes stroomt | Air, yang mengalir perlahan |
Fragment from Petjoh van Batavia
editFrom Tjalie Robinson, Ik en Bentiet:[9]
I say: "Als so, alleen djoeloeng-djoeloeng jij fang!"
He say: "Itoe diejè!"
I say: "Njang klein-klein fóór wat?"
He say: "Foor kwamaroem".
I say: "Foor wat?"
He say: Foor waramoeki".
I say: So-euven jij seh anders".
He say: "Ha-a. Muuleke woort dese. Laat maar dese woort, alsmaar ding-nja hoet".
I say: "Wat foor ding, dese ding. Lekker?"
He say: "Masa lekker. Als jij denken freten door maar-door jij".
References
editCitations
edit- ^ Petjo at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ Website of Tjalie Robinsons Dutch biographer
- ^ Salverda, Reinier (2013-11-14), Hinskens, Frans; Taeldeman, Johan (eds.), "42. Between Dutch and Indonesian: Colonial Dutch in time and space", Dutch, DE GRUYTER, pp. 800–821, doi:10.1515/9783110261332.800, ISBN 978-3-11-018005-3, retrieved 2024-08-04
- ^ Vries, J. W. de (1992). "lndisch-Nederlands: verleden, hedenen toekomst" [Indo: past, present and future]. In Willems, W. (ed.). Sporen van een lndisch verleden 1600-1942 [Traces of an Indo past 1600-1942] (in Dutch). Leiden: Centrum voor Onderzoek van Maatschappelijke Tegenstellingen, Rijksuniversiteit Leiden. pp. 125–139.
- ^ Bakker, M. A.; Morrison, B. H., eds. (1994). "The language of the Indo-Dutch". Studies in Netherlandic Culture and Literature. 7. Lanham-New York-London: University Press of America: 213–226.
- ^ de Vries, Jan W.; Stokhof, Wim (1997-01-01). "Verbal Morphology in Javindo and Pecok". In Odé, Cecilia; Stokhof, Wim (eds.). Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. BRILL. doi:10.1163/9789004643253_019. ISBN 978-90-04-64325-3.
- ^ a b Paasman, Bert (1994). Tjalie Robinson, de stem van Indisch Nederlands. The Hague: Stichting Tong-Tong. p. 26.
- ^ a b Cress, Richard (1998). Petjoh woorden en wetenswaardigheden uit het Indische verleden. Amsterdam: Prometheus. pp. 26–27. ISBN 9789053336076.
- ^ a b c Robinson, Tjalie (1975). Ik en Bentiet. Moesson. p. 26. ISBN 9070301369.
- ^ Robinson, Tjalie (1955). Piekerans van een straatslijper II. Bandung: Masa Baru.
Bibliography
edit- Cress, R.(1998): Petjoh. Woorden en wetenswaardigheden uit het Indische verleden. Amsterdam, Prometheus.
- Rickford, J.R. & Mc Worther, J (1997): “Language contact and language generation: Pidgins and Creoles”. In: F. Coulmas (red), The handbook of sociolinguistics. Oxford, Blackwell, p. 238–256.
- Riyanto, Sugeng (1996): “Het ontstaan en de structuur van het Petjoek”, In: Darmojuwono, Setiawati; Suratminto, Lilie (red): Duapuluh lima tahun studi Belanda di Indonesia/ Vijfentwintig jaar studie Nederlands in Indonesië. p. 209–218
- Van Rheeden, Hadewych A. (1995): "Het Petjo van Batavia – ontstaan en structuur van de taal van de Indo's", Amsterdam: Universiteit van Amsterdam, Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap
- Amade, Elly G. (1995). Functions of Left Dislocation in Petjoh (PDF). Third Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. University of Colorado.
