Wikipedia

Reforestation

(Redirected from Forest regrowth)
This article is about natural or intentional restocking of former forests and woodlands. For the establishment of a forest in an area where there was no forest before, see Afforestation. For reforestation and afforestation together, see Forest management.

Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Three important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood, for climate change mitigation, and for ecosystem and habitat restoration purposes. One method of reforestation is to establish tree plantations, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3% of the global forest area and 45% of the total area of planted forests.[1]

A forest, six years after reforestation efforts in Panama.
Reforestation in progress: Direct-sowing of seed in a burned area (after a wildfire) in the Idaho Panhandle National Forest, United States.

Globally, planted forests increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015.[2] Plantation forests made up 280 million ha (hectare) in 2015, an increase of about 40 million ha in the previous ten years.[3] Of the planted forests worldwide, 18% of that area consists of exotic or introduced species while the rest consist of species native to the country where they are planted.[4]

There are limitations and challenges with reforestation projects, especially if they are in the form of tree plantations. Firstly, there can be competition with other land uses and displacement risk. Secondly, tree plantations are often monocultures which comes with a set of disadvantages, for example biodiversity loss. Lastly, there is also the problem that stored carbon is released at some point.

The effects of reforestation will be farther in the future than those of proforestation (the conservation of intact forests).[5] Instead of planting entirely new areas, it might be better to reconnect forested areas and restore the edges of forest. This protects their mature core and makes them more resilient and longer-lasting.[6] It takes much longer − several decades − for the carbon sequestration benefits of reforestation to become similar to those from mature trees in tropical forests. Therefore, reducing deforestation is usually more beneficial for climate change mitigation than is reforestation.[7]

Many countries carry out reforestation programs. For example, in China, the Three Northern Protected Forest Development Program – informally known as the "Great Green Wall" – was launched in 1978 and scheduled to last until 2050. It aims to eventually plant nearly 90 million acres of new forest in a 2,800-mile stretch of northern China.[8] Such programs often blur the boundaries between reforestation and afforestation (the latter being the establishment of a forest in an area where there was no forest before).

Definition

edit

Reforestation according to the IPCC means the "conversion to forest of land that has previously contained forests but that has been converted to some other use".[9]: 1812 

According to FAO terminology, reforestation is defined as the re-establishment of forest through planting and/or deliberate seeding on land classified as forest.

Afforestation on the other hand means establishing new forest on lands that were not forest before (for example, abandoned agriculture).[10] It is the process of restoring and recreating areas of woodlands or forests that may have existed long ago but were deforested or otherwise removed at some point in the past or lacked it naturally (for example, natural grasslands).[citation needed]

Purposes

edit

Harvesting of wood

edit
See also: Forestry, Forest management, and Tree plantation

Reforestation is not only used for recovery of accidentally destroyed forests. In some countries, such as Finland, many of the forests are managed by the wood products and pulp and paper industry. In such an arrangement, like other crops, trees are planted to replace those that have been cut. The Finnish Forest Act from 1996 obliges the forest to be replanted after felling.[11] In such circumstances, the industry can cut the trees in a way to allow easier reforestation.[citation needed]

Reforestation, if several indigenous species are used, can provide other benefits in addition to financial returns, including restoration of the soil, rejuvenation of local flora and fauna, and the capturing and sequestering of 38 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare per year.[12]

Climate change mitigation

edit
See also: Deforestation and climate change

There are four primary ways in which reforestation and reducing deforestation can increase carbon sequestration and thus help with climate change mitigation. First, by increasing the volume of existing forest. Second, by increasing the carbon density of existing forests at a stand and landscape scale.[13] Third, by expanding the use of forest products that will sustainably replace fossil-fuel emissions. Fourth, by reducing carbon emissions that are caused from deforestation and degradation.[14]

This section is an excerpt from Carbon sequestration § Forestry.[edit]
 
Proportion of carbon stock in forest carbon pools, 2020[15]

Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Therefore, they play an important role in climate change mitigation.[16]: 37  By removing the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, meaning they store large amounts of carbon in the form of biomass, encompassing roots, stems, branches, and leaves. Throughout their lifespan, trees continue to sequester carbon, storing atmospheric CO2 long-term.[17] Sustainable forest management, afforestation, reforestation are therefore important contributions to climate change mitigation.

An important consideration in such efforts is that forests can turn from sinks to carbon sources.[18][19][20] In 2019 forests took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts[21] and deforestation. The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.[22]

Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as the latter leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation.[23] Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest.[24] Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019.[25] Additionally, the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in the future than keeping existing forests intact.[26] It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation.[27] Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate solution".[28]

The planting of trees on marginal crop and pasture lands helps to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO
2 into biomass.[29][30] For this carbon sequestration process to succeed the carbon must not return to the atmosphere from biomass burning or rotting when the trees die.[31] To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via biochar, bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, landfill or stored by use in construction.

Ecosystem restoration

edit
 
land under deforestation and ready for restoration

Plantation forests are intensively managed, composed of one or two species, even-aged, planted with regular spacing, and established mainly for productive purposes. Other planted forests, which comprise 55 percent of all planted forests, are not intensively managed, and they may resemble natural forests at stand maturity. The purposes of other planted forests may include ecosystem restoration and the protection of soil and water values.[1]

Methods

edit

Forest plantations

edit

Plantation forests cover about 131 million ha, which is 3 percent of the global forest area and 45 percent of the total area of planted forests.[1]

Over 90% of the world's forests regenerate organically, and more than half are covered by forest management plans or equivalents.[32][33]

 
An image of a reforestation site in Praslin

Globally, planted forests increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015.[2] Plantation forests made up 280 million ha (hectare) in 2015, an increase of about 40 million ha in the previous ten years.[3] Of the planted forests worldwide, 18% of that planted area consists of exotic or introduced species while the rest consist of species native to the country where they are planted.[4]

This section is an excerpt from Tree plantation.[edit]

A tree plantation, forest plantation, plantation forest, timber plantation or tree farm is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a monoculture forest. The term tree farm also is used to refer to tree nurseries and Christmas tree farms. Plantation forestry can produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities (for example, the Forestry Commission in Britain) and/or the paper and wood industries and other private landowners (such as Weyerhaeuser, Rayonier and Sierra Pacific Industries in the United States or Asia Pulp & Paper in Indonesia). Christmas trees are often grown on plantations, and in southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have recently replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are actively managed for the commercial production of forest products. Industrial plantations are usually large-scale. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species. These species can be exotic or indigenous. The plants used for the plantation are often genetically altered for desired traits such as growth and resistance to pests and diseases in general and specific traits, for example in the case of timber species, volumic wood production and stem straightness. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration. Selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material.

Wood production on a tree plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. While forests managed for wood production commonly yield between 1 and 3 cubic meters per hectare per year, plantations of fast-growing species commonly yield between 20 and 30 cubic meters or more per hectare annually; a Grand Fir plantation in Scotland has a growth rate of 34 cubic meters per hectare per year,[34] and Monterey Pine plantations in southern Australia can yield up to 40 cubic meters per hectare per year.[35] In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, it is estimated that they supplied about 35% of the world's roundwood.[36]

Using existing trees and roots

edit

Planting new trees often leads to up to 90% of seedlings failing. However, even in deforested areas, existing root systems often exist. Growth can be accelerated by pruning and coppicing where a few branches of new shoots are cut and often used for charcoal, itself a major driver of deforestation. Since new seeds are not planted, it is cheaper. Additionally, they are much more likely to survive as their root systems already exist and can tap into groundwater during harsher seasons with no rain.[37] While this method has existed for centuries, it is now sometimes referred to as farmer-managed natural regeneration[38] or assisted natural regeneration.[39][40]

Financial incentives

edit
See also: REDD and REDD+

Policies that promote reforestation for incentives in return have shown promising results of being an effective and motivative concept to re-plant globally on a mass scale.[41]

Some incentives for reforestation can be as simple as a financial compensation. A compensated reduction of deforestation approach has been proposed which would reward developing countries that disrupt any further act of deforestation: Countries that participate and take the option to reduce their emissions from deforestation during a committed period of time would receive financial compensation for the carbon dioxide emissions that they avoided.[42]: 875  To raise the payments, the host country would issue government bonds or negotiate some kind of loan with a financial institution that would want to take part in the compensation promised to the other country. The funds received by the country could be invested to help find alternatives to the extensive cutdown of forests. This whole process of cutting emissions would be voluntary, but once the country has agreed to lower their emissions they would be obligated to reduce their emissions. However, if a country was not able to meet their obligation, their target would get added to their next commitment period. The authors of these proposals see this as a solely government-to-government agreement; private entities would not participate in the compensation trades.[42]: 876 

Another emerging revenue source to fund reforestation projects deals with the sale of carbon sequestration credits, which can be sold to companies and individuals looking to compensate their carbon footprint. This approach allows for private landowners and farmers to gain a revenue from the reforestation of their lands, while simultaneously benefiting from improved soil health and increased productivity.[43]

Alongside past financial incentive strategies, reforestation tax benefits have been another way the government has encouraged companies to promote reforestation tactics through the promises of a tax break.[44]

As many landholders seek to earn carbon credits through sequestration, their participation also encourages biodiversity and provides ecosystem services for crops and livestock.[45]

Challenges

edit
See also: Tree plantations § Problems

There is often insufficient integration between the different purposes of reforestation, namely economic utilization, enhancement of biodiversity and carbon sequestration.[46] This can lead to a range of different challenges.

Competition with other land uses and displacement risk

edit

Reforestation can compete with other land uses, such as food production, livestock grazing, and living space, for further economic growth.[47][48] Reforestation can also divert large amounts of water from other activities.[49] A map created by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the IUCN identifies 2 billion hectares for potential forest restoration and is criticized for including 900 million hectares of grasslands.[50][51] An assessment of the pledges of governments for reforestation found that the sum of global pledges translates to a required land area of 1.2bn hectares, until 2060, which is equal to a tenth of the global land area und thus deemed unrealistic without a significant encroachment on non-forest areas.[52] Experts are calling for a better integration of social data, such as the dependence of livelihoods on specific land uses, into restoration efforts.[53] Possible solutions include the integration of other land uses into forests through agroforestry, such as growing coffee plants under trees, reducing the delineation between forests and other land uses.[52]

A study found that almost 300 million people live on tropical forest restoration opportunity land in the Global South, constituting a large share of low-income countries' populations, and argues for prioritized inclusion of "local communities" in forest restoration projects.[54][55][56]

There are calls for a more selective approach to identifying reforestation areas, taking into account the possible displacement of customary land uses.[57]

Biodiversity loss

edit

Reforesting sometimes results in extensive canopy creation that prevents growth of diverse vegetation in the shadowed areas and generating soil conditions that hamper other types of vegetation. Trees used in some reforesting efforts (for example, Eucalyptus globulus) tend to extract large amounts of moisture from the soil, preventing the growth of other plants. The European Commission found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as the former leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation.[58]

The effects reforestation has on biodiversity is not limited to just other forms of vegetation, it can affect all forms of living organisms all contained in the present ecosystem.[59] Due to the major role trees have on ecosystems it is important to better understand components like the ecosystem, waterways, and species present in areas that are being re-planted. Prior research helps limit the depletion of biodiversity which can hinder medicinal discoveries, and alter gene flow in organisms.[48]

A debated issue in managed reforestation is whether the succeeding forest will have the same biodiversity as the original forest. If the forest is replaced with only one species of tree and all other vegetation is prevented from growing back, a monoculture forest similar to agricultural crops would be the result. However, most reforestation involves the planting of different selections of seedlings taken from the area, often of multiple species.[60][61]

Stored carbon being released

edit

There is also the risk that, through a forest fire or insect outbreak, much of the stored carbon in a reforested area could make its way back to the atmosphere.[62] Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forests.[63] An example of this can be seen in the peatlands in Central Africa, which house an abundance of carbon in the mud called peat. Much like the forest fire or insect outbreak which can harm tropical rainforests, money can also be seen an incentive to harm forests and be paid off to protect it.[64] The global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may be underestimated by a factor of six.[65]

Also the possible harvesting and utilization of wood from reforested areas, limits the permanence of carbon sequestered through reforestation. For example, it was found that nearly half of the pledges under the Bonn Challenge were areas earmarked for commercial wood use.[66]

Additionally the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in the future than those of proforestation (the conservation of intact forests).[5] It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation.[7]

Some researchers note that instead of planting entirely new areas, reconnecting forested areas and restoring the edges of forest, to protect their mature core and make them more resilient and longer-lasting, should be prioritized.[6]

Implementation challenges

edit

There are some implementation challenges

  • Seed shortage: the Seed to Forest Alliance was founded in 2022 in response to a global seed shortage. It will promote the establishment of national seed banks, while focusing on the tropics and biodiversity hotspots.[67]
  • Seedling survival rate: a common challenge for reforestation is the low survival rate of seedlings. Planted trees often do not mature, for example due to difficult climatic conditions or insufficient care after planting.[52][68]

By country

edit
See also: Afforestation § Examples, and Tree planting § By country

Asia

edit

China

edit
See also: Afforestation § China

According to China's government, the forest coverage of the country grew from 10% of the overall territory in 1949 to 25% in 2024.[69]

China has introduced the Green Wall of China project, which aims to halt the expansion of the Gobi desert through the planting of trees. There has been a 47-million-hectare increase in forest area in China since the 1970s.[70] The total number of trees amounted to be about 35 billion and 4.55% of China's land mass increased in forest coverage. The forest coverage was 12% two decades ago and now is 16.55%.[71]

China announced two large reforestation programs, the Natural Forest Protection Program and the Returning Farmland to Forest program, in late 1998.[72]: 183  The programs were piloted in Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Gansu in 1999.[72]: 183  They became widely implemented in 2000.[72]: 183  The Natural Forest Protection Program called for major reductions in timber harvest, forest conservation, and instituted logging bans in most of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Tibet.[72]: 183  The program provided for alternative employment opportunities for former logging industry workers, including hiring them for reforestation work.[72]: 183  The Returning Farmland to Forest program paid farmers to plant trees on less productive farmland and provided them with a yearly subsidy for lost income.[72]: 183  In 2015 China announced a plan to plant 26 billion trees by the year 2025; that is, two trees for every Chinese citizen per year.[73]

Between 2013 and 2018, China planted 338,000 square kilometres of forests, at a cost of $82.88 billion.[74] By 2018, 21.7% of China's territory was covered by forests, a figure the government wants to increase to 26% by 2035. The total area of China is 9,596,961 square kilometres (see China), so 412,669 square kilometres more needs to be planted.[75] According to the government's plan, by 2050, 30% of China's territory should be covered by forests.[76]

In 2017, the Saihanba Afforestation Community won the UN Champions of the Earth Award in the Inspiration and Action category for their successful reforestation efforts,[77] which began upon discovering the survival of a single tree.[78]

From 2016 to 2021, 3976 square kilometers of forests were planted in the Tibet Autonomous Region, with plans for 20 million trees to be planted before 2023.[79]

In the years 2012–2022 China restored more than 70 million hectares (700,000 km2) of forests. China committed to plant and conserve 70 billion trees by the year 2030 as part of the Trillion Tree Campaign.[80]

The Jane Goodall Institute launched the Million Tree Project in Kulun Qi, Inner Mongolia to plant one million trees.[81][82] China used 24 million hectares of new forest to offset 21% of Chinese fossil fuel emissions in 2000.[62]: 1456 

The Chinese government requires mining companies to restore the environment around exhausted mines by refilling excavated pits and planting crops or trees.[83]: 53  Many mining companies use these recovered mines for ecotourism business.[83]: 54–55 

Launched in 1978 and scheduled to last until 2050, the Three Northern Protected Forest Development Program – informally known as the "Great Green Wall" – aims to eventually plant nearly 90 million acres of new forest in a 2,800-mile stretch of northern China.[8]

Over 69.3 million hectares of forest were planted across China from 1999 to 2013. This large-scale reforestation contributed to China’s forests sequestering 1.11 ± 0.38 Gt carbon per yr over the period 2010 to 2016. This amounted to about 45 percent of the yearly greenhouse gas emissions during that period in China.[84]

India

edit

Jadav Payeng had received national awards for reforestation efforts, known as the "Molai forest". He planted 1400 hectares of forest on the bank of river Brahmaputra alone.[85] There are active reforestation efforts throughout the country. In 2016, India had more than 50 million trees planted in Uttar Pradesh and in 2017, more than 66 million trees planted in Madhya Pradesh.[86] In addition to this and individual efforts, there are startup companies, such as Afforest,[87] that are being created over the country working on reforestation.[88] Lots of plantation are being carried out in the Indian continent but the survivability is very poor especially for massive plantations, with less than 20% survivability rate. To improve the forest cover and to achieve the national mission of forest cover of 33%, there is a need to improve the methods of plantation. Rather than mass planting, there is a need to work on performance measurement & tracking of trees growth. Taking this into consideration, a non-profit organization Ek Kadam Sansthan in Jaipur is leading the development of a module of mass tracking for plantations. The pilot has been done successfully and the organization is hoping to implement nationwide by the end of 2021.[89]

Japan

edit

The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery explain that about two-thirds of Japanese land is covered with forests,[90] and it was almost unchanged from 1966 to 2012.[91] Japan needs to reduce 26% of green house gas emission from 2013 by 2030 to accomplish Paris Agreement and is trying to reduce 2% of them by forestry.[92]

Mass environmental and human-body pollution along with relating deforestation, water pollution, smoke damage, and loss of soils caused by mining operations in Ashio, Tochigi became the first environmental social issue in Japan, efforts by Shōzō Tanaka had grown to large campaigns against copper operation. This led to the creation of 'Watarase Yusuichi Pond', to settle the pollution which is a Ramsar site today. Reforestation was conducted as a part of afforestation due to inabilities of self-recovering by the natural land itself due to serious soil pollution and loss of woods consequence in loss of soils for plants to grow, thus needing artificial efforts involving introducing of healthy soils from outside. Starting from around 1897, about 50% of once bald mountains are now back to green.[93]

Pakistan

edit

The Billion Tree Tsunami was launched in 2014 by planting 10 billion trees, by the provincial government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) and Imran Khan, as a response to the challenge of global warming. Pakistan's Billion Tree Tsunami restored 350,000 hectares of forests and degraded land to surpass its Bonn Challenge commitment.[94]

In 2018, Pakistan's prime minister Imran Khan declared that the country will plant 10 billion trees in the next five years.[95]

In 2020, the Pakistani government launched an initiative to hire 63,600 laborers to plant trees in the northern Punjab region, with indigenous species such as acacia, mulberry and moringa. This initiative was meant to alleviate unemployment caused by lockdowns to mitigate the spread of COVID-19.[96][97]

Philippines

edit

In 2011, the Philippines established the National Greening Program as a priority program to help reduce poverty, promote food security, environmental stability, and biodiversity conservation, as well as enhance climate change mitigation and adaptation in the country. The program paved the way for the planting of almost 1.4 billion seedlings in about 1.66 million hectares nationwide during the 2011–2016 period. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ranked the Philippines fifth among countries reporting the greatest annual forest area gain, which reached 240,000 hectares during the 2010–2015 period.[98][99]

Thailand

edit

Efforts are being made in Thailand to restore the land after 800,000 hectares of forest have been destroyed in exchange for cash crop land to grow maize.[100] Agroforestry has become part of the solution to fix the damage caused by deforestation. Agroforestry would affect the agriculture and atmosphere in Thailand in numerous ways. By planting a combination of different tree species, these trees are able to change the microclimatic conditions.[100] Nutrient cycling also occurs when trees are incorporated in the agricultural system.[100] It is also probable that the soil erosion that occurred as a result of deforestation can be mediated when these trees are planted.[100]

Europe

edit
 
A 15-year-old reforested plot of land

Armenia

edit

The Armenia Tree Project was founded in 1994 to address environmental and economic concerns related to Armenia's dwindling forests. Since its founding, the organization has planted more than 6.5 million trees in communities throughout Armenia.[101]

My Forest Armenia was founded in 2019 and has since planted 910,000 trees in Armenia.[102]

Iceland

edit

Prior to the deforestation of Iceland in the Middle Ages, some 40% of the land was forested.[103] Today, the country is about 2% forested, with the Icelandic Forest Service aiming to increase that share to 10% through reforestation and natural regrowth.[104]

Ireland

edit

In 2019 the government of Ireland decided to plant 440 million trees by 2040. The decision is part of the government's plan to make Ireland carbon neutral by 2050 with renewable energy, land use change and carbon tax.[105]

Ireland is also driven to increase sustainable timber consumption while also adding more eco friendly work positions.[106] They also have taken efforts to limit the use of methane emissions by signing a pledge to draw back methane use by 30%.[107]

Germany

edit

By the 14th century, forests in heavily populated areas had been devastated by industry, many of which required wood for their activities.[108] Peter Stromer (1310–1388), lord of the Stromer trading and commercial company, was spurred by this shortage to "conduct forest culture experiments".[108] In 1368 he successfully sowed fir and pine seeds in the Nuremberg Reichswald, which over time ended the wood shortage and established the "triumph of the pine in the Nuremberg Reichswald" (at the expense of other deciduous trees).[108] The "doctrine of coniferous sowing" spread widely through forestry regulations and other writing at the time.[108]

Reforestation is required as part of the federal forest law. 31% of Germany is forested, according to the second forest inventory of 2001–2003. The size of the forest area in Germany increased between the first and the second forest inventory due to forestation of degenerated bogs and agricultural areas.[109]

United Kingdom

edit
See also: Afforestation § United Kingdom

Since the 1980s, 8.5 million trees have been planted in the United Kingdom in an area of the Midlands around the villages of Moira and Donisthorpe, close to Leicester. The area is called The National Forest.[110] An even larger reforestation project, called The Northern Forest, is beginning in South Yorkshire. It aims to plant 50 million trees.[111] Despite this, the UK government has been criticized for not achieving its tree planting goals.[112][113] There have also been concerns of non-native tree planting disturbing the ecological integrity and processes of what would be a native habitat restoration.[114]

Middle East

edit

Israel

edit
See also: Afforestation § Israel

Since 1948, large reforestation and afforestation projects were accomplished in Israel. 240 million trees have been planted. The carbon sequestration rate in these forests is similar to the European temperate forests.[115]

Israel and only one other country was documented to have a net increase of forestation in the 2000s. This type of progress could be attributed to the social practices that Israel incorporates into their society.[116][dubious – discuss]

Lebanon

edit

For thousands of years Lebanon was covered by forests; one particular species of interest, Cedrus libani was exceptionally valuable and was almost eliminated due to lumbering operations.[117] Many ancient cultures along the Mediterranean Sea harvested these trees including the Phoenicians who used cedar, pine and juniper for boat building, the Romans, who cut them down for lime-burning kilns, and the Ottomans, who used much of the remaining cedar forests of Lebanon as fuel in steam trains in the early 20th century.[118] Despite two millennia of deforestation, forests in Lebanon still cover 13.6% of the country, and other wooded lands represent 11%.[119]

Law No. 558, which was ratified by the Lebanese Parliament on April 19, 1996, aims to protect and expand existing forests, classifying all forests of cedar, fir, high juniper, evergreen cypress and other trees, whether diverse or homogeneous, whether state-owned or not as conserved forests.[120]

Since 2011 more than 600,000 trees, including cedars and other native species, have been planted throughout Lebanon as part of the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative, which aims to restore Lebanon's native forests.[121] Projects financed locally and by international charity are performing extensive reforestation of cedar being carried out in the Mediterranean region, particularly in Lebanon and Turkey, where over 50 million young cedars are being planted annually.

The Lebanon Reforestation Initiative has been working with tree nurseries throughout Lebanon since 2012 to grow stronger seedlings with higher survival rates.[122]

Turkey

edit

Of the country's 78 million hectares of land in total, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry aims to increase Turkey's forest cover to 30% by 2023.[123]

Four thousand years ago, Anatolia was 60% to 70% forested.[124] Although the flora of Turkey remains more biodiverse than many European countries, deforestation occurred during both prehistoric[125] and historic times, including the Roman[126] and Ottoman[127] periods.

Since the first forest code of 1937, the official government definition of 'forest' has varied.[128] According to the current definition, 21 million hectares are forested, an increase of about 1 million hectares over the past thirty years, but only about half is 'productive'.[129] However, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization definition of forest,[130] about 12 million hectares was forested in 2015,[131] about 15% of the land surface.[needs update]

The amount of greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey removed by forests is very uncertain.[132]: 489 As of 2019, however, a new assessment is being made with the help of satellites and new soil measurements and better information should be available by 2020.[132] According to the World Resources Institute "Atlas of Forest Landscape Restoration Opportunities", 50 million hectares are potential forest land, a similar area to the ancient Anatolian forest mentioned above.[133] This could help limit climate change in Turkey. To help preserve the biodiversity of Turkey, more sustainable forestry has been suggested.[124] Improved rangeland management is also needed.[134]

National Forestation Day is on 11 November but, according to the agriculture and forestry trade union, although volunteers planted a record number of trees in 2019, most had died by 2020 in part due to lack of rainfall.[135]

North America

edit

Canada

edit
 
A 21-year-old plantation of red pine in southern Ontario

Natural Resources Canada (The Department of Natural Resources) states that the national forest cover was decreased by 0.34% from 1990 to 2015, and Canada has the lowest deforestation rate in the world.[136] The forest industry is one of the main industries in Canada, which contributes about 7% of Canadian economy,[137] and about 9% of the forests on Earth are in Canada.[138] Therefore, Canada has many policies and laws to commit to sustainable forest management. For example, 94% of Canadian forests are public land, and the government obligates planting trees after harvesting to public forests.[139]

United States

edit
 
Forest regrowth in Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, Washington state, US

It is the stated goal of the United States Forest Service (USFS) to manage forest resources sustainably. This includes reforestation after timber harvest, among other programs.[140]

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) data shows that forest occupied about 46% of total U.S. land in 1630 (when European settlers began to arrive in large numbers), but had decreased to 34% by 1910. After 1910, forest area has remained almost constant although the U.S. population has increased substantially.[141] In the late 19th century, the USFS was established in part to address the concern of natural disasters due to deforestation, and new reforestation programs and federal laws such as the Knutson-Vandenberg Act (1930) were implemented. The USFS states that human-directed reforestation is required to support natural regeneration and the agency engages in ongoing research into effective ways to restore forests.[142]

As for the year 2020, the U.S. planted 2.5 billion trees per year. At the beginning of the year 2020, a bill that will increase the number to 3.3 billion, was proposed by the Republican Party, after President Donald Trump joined the Trillion Tree Campaign.[143]

Latin America

edit
 
Tropical tree nursery at Planeta Verde Reforestación S.A.'s plantation in Vichada Department, Colombia

Bolivia

edit

Training in reforestation for young people in Bolivia has been provided by Oxfam Intermón.[144]

Costa Rica

edit
Main article: Reforestation in Costa Rica

Through reforestation and environmental conservation, Costa Rica doubled its forest cover in 30 years.[145]

Costa Rica has a long-standing commitment to the environment. The country is now one of the leaders of sustainability, biodiversity, and other protections. It wants to be completely fossil fuel free by 2050.[146] The country has generated all of its electric power from renewable sources for three years as of 2019. It has committed to be carbon-free and plastic-free by 2021.[147]

As of 2019, half of the country's land surface is covered with forests. They absorb a huge amount of carbon dioxide, combating climate change.[148]

In the 1940s, more than 75% of the country was covered in mostly tropical rainforests and other indigenous woodlands. Between the 1940s and 1980s, extensive, uncontrolled logging led to severe deforestation. By 1983, only 26% of the country had forest cover. Realizing the devastation, policymakers took a stand. Through a continued environmental focus they were able to turn things around to the point that today forest cover has increased to 52%, two times more than 1983 levels.

An honorable world leader for ecotourism and conservation, Costa Rica has pioneered the development of payments for environmental services. Costa Rica's extensive system of environmental protection has been encouraging conservation and reforestation of the land by providing grants for environmental services. The system is not just advanced for its time but is also unparalleled in the world. It received great international attention.

Costa Rica doubled its forest cover in 30 years using its system of grants and other payments for environmental services, including compensation for landowners. One of the main programs established in Costa Rica was the Forest Promotion Certificate in 1979 and is funded by international donations and nationwide taxes.[149][150] The initiative is helping to protect the forests in the country, and is now helped pass both the Forest Law in 1986 and FONAFIFO in 1990 which insures the continuity of the conservation programs.[149]

Costa Rica's ambitious reforestation initiatives have transformed the landscape, fostering biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and sustainable land management practices.[151]

Peru

edit

Approximately 59% of Peru is covered by forest.[152] A history of political turmoil and the government's inability to enforce environmental regulations has led to the degradation of the forest and environment in Peru. A military coup in 1968 caused a loss of economic mobility in the Talara region and sparked a boom in illegal logging due to the lack of alternative economic opportunities.[153] Illegal mining and logging operations are responsible for a great deal of Peru's deforestation and environmental damage.[154] The Peruvian government has not been able to enforce an environmentally conscious mining formalization plan to protect the Amazon forest in the Madre de Dios region. The 1980s were known in Peru as the "lost decade" due to a nationwide internal conflict and severe economic crisis almost destroying the country and resulting in the state losing control over several regions.[154] Many areas in Peru, including Madre de Dios, had no state presence until the government initiated a movement to 'conquer and populate the Amazon,' with the hopes of minimizing illegal and informal mining operations that had expanded in the region and were polluting the Amazonian rivers and the destroying of its forests.[154]

Reforestation initiatives have expanded in the country since. In Peru, reforestation is essential to preserving the livelihoods of rural communities because much of the population relies on the forest in some way.[155] Deforestation also disproportionally affects indigenous communities in Peru, which is why reforestation efforts are essential for the protection of many communities' livelihoods.[citation needed]

Sub-Saharan Africa

edit

One plan in this region, called Great Green Wall (Africa), involves planting a nine-mile width of trees on the Southern Border of the Sahara Desert for stopping its expansion to the south.[156] However, this is more of an afforestation project than a reforestation one.[citation needed]

In 2019, Ethiopia begun a massive tree planting campaign "Green Legacy" with a target to plant 4 billion trees in one year. In one day only, over 350 million trees were planted.[157]

Nigeria

edit
This section is an excerpt from Reforestation in Nigeria.[edit]
 
Forest nursery located in the compound of the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
Reforestation in Nigeria employs both natural and artificial methods. Reforestation involves the deliberate planting of trees and restoring forested areas that have been depleted or destroyed. It involves a planned restocking of the forest to ensure sustainable supply of timber and other forest products.[158][159] Reforestation, in essence, involves replenishing forests to guarantee a consistent and sustainable supply of timber and various other forest resources. This objective can be accomplished through either natural regeneration techniques or artificial regeneration methods.[158] Both of these approaches have been utilized in the reforestation efforts within Nigeria's forests.[158] At the initiation of the reforestation program in Nigeria, the natural regeneration approach was chosen for two primary reasons.[158] Firstly, it aimed to preserve the rainforest in its original state by allowing it to regenerate naturally from the existing seed bank in the soil. Secondly, and of significant importance, this method was selected due to budgetary constraints, as there were insufficient funds available to establish plantations through direct means.[158]

Organizations and programs

edit
  • Ecosia is a non-profit organization based in Berlin, Germany, that has planted over 100 million trees worldwide as of July 2020.
  • Trees for the Future has assisted more than 170,000 families, in 6,800 villages of Asia, Africa and the Americas, to plant over 35 million trees.[160]
  • Ecologi is an organization that offers its members ways to support climate change solutions. This includes offsetting their carbon emissions and tree planting. So far over 50 million trees have been planted through Ecologi, as well a more than 2.2 million tonnes of CO2e reduced.[161]
  • Wangari Maathai, 2004 Nobel Peace Prize recipient, founded the Green Belt Movement which planted over 47 million trees to restore the Kenyan environment.[162]
  • Team Trees was a 2019 fundraiser with an initiative to plant 20 million trees. The initiative was started by American YouTubers MrBeast and Mark Rober, and was mostly supported by YouTubers. The Arbor Day Foundation will work with its local partners around the world to plant one tree for each dollar they raise.[163]
  • Trees For Life (Brooklyn Park) is a state based organization, which was established back in 1981 and delivers conservation, revegetation and community training programs. It now has thousands of active supporters[164] and energizes activity within communities.[165]
  • Many companies are trying to achieve carbon offsets by nature-based solutions like reforestation, including mangrove forests and soil restoration. Among them are Microsoft and Eni. Increasing the forest cover of Earth by 25% will offset the human emissions in the last 20 years. In any case it will be necessary to pull from the atmosphere the CO2 that already have been emitted. However, this can work only if the companies will stop new emissions and stop deforestation.[166]
  • The 2020 World Economic Forum, held in Davos, announced the creation of the Trillion Tree Campaign, which is an initiative aiming to plant 1 trillion trees across the globe. The implementation can have big environmental and societal benefits but needs to be tailored to local conditions.[167]
  • The forest landscape restoration strategy seeks to rehabilitate landscapes and repair marginal and degraded areas in order to generate productive forest landscapes that are resilient and long-term. It aims to guarantee that diverse ecological and land-use functions are restored, safeguarded, and preserved over time.[32][168]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b c "Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020". www.fao.org. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
  2. ^ a b Payn, Tim; Carnus, Jean-Michel; Freer-Smith, Peter; Kimberley, Mark; Kollert, Walter; Liu, Shirong; Orazio, Christophe; Rodriguez, Luiz; Silva, Luis Neves; Wingfield, Michael J. (2015). "Changes in planted forests and future global implications". Forest Ecology and Management. 352: 57–67. Bibcode:2015ForEM.352...57P. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2015.06.021. ISSN 0378-1127.
  3. ^ a b FAO, ed. (2016). Global forest resources assessment 2015: how are the world's forests changing?. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 978-92-5-109283-5.
  4. ^ a b Ennos, Richard; Cottrell, Joan; Hall, Jeanette; O'Brien, David (2019). "Is the introduction of novel exotic forest tree species a rational response to rapid environmental change? – A British perspective". Forest Ecology and Management. 432: 718–728. Bibcode:2019ForEM.432..718E. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2018.10.018. hdl:20.500.11820/725af6fe-4ef8-4345-8f06-634eb59414ff. ISSN 0378-1127.
  5. ^ a b "Why Keeping Mature Forests Intact Is Key to the Climate Fight". Yale E360. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  6. ^ a b Mackey, Brendan; Dooley, Kate (6 August 2019). "Want to beat climate change? Protect our natural forests". The Conversation. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  7. ^ a b "Would a Large-scale Reforestation Effort Help Counter the Global Warming Impacts of Deforestation?". Union of Concerned Scientists. 1 September 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  8. ^ a b Luoma, Jon. "China's Reforestation Programs: Big Success or Just an Illusion?". YaleEnvironment360. the Yale School of the Environment. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
  9. ^ IPCC, 2022: Annex I: Glossary [van Diemen, R., J.B.R. Matthews, V. Möller, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, A. Reisinger, S. Semenov (eds)]. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.020
  10. ^ Terms and definitions – FRA 2020 (PDF). Rome: FAO. 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2019.
  11. ^ "Oikeudet ja velvollisuudet" [Rights and responsibilities] (in Finnish). Metsäkeskus (Forest Center). Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  12. ^ Henkel, Marlon (22 February 2015). 21st Century Homestead: Sustainable Agriculture III: Agricultural Practices. Lulu.com. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-312-93975-2.
  13. ^ Thomas, Paul W.; Jump, Alistair S. (21 March 2023). "Edible fungi crops through mycoforestry, potential for carbon negative food production and mitigation of food and forestry conflicts". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 120 (12): e2220079120. Bibcode:2023PNAS..12020079T. doi:10.1073/pnas.2220079120. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 10041105. PMID 36913576.
  14. ^ Canadell JG, Raupach MR (2008). "Managing Forests for Climate Change". Science. 320 (5882): 1456–7. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1456C. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.573.5230. doi:10.1126/science.1155458. PMID 18556550. S2CID 35218793.
  15. ^ Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8753en. ISBN 978-92-5-132581-0. S2CID 130116768.
  16. ^ IPCC (2022) Summary for policy makers in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
  17. ^ Sedjo, R., & Sohngen, B. (2012). Carbon sequestration in forests and soils. Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ., 4(1), 127-144.
  18. ^ Baccini, A.; Walker, W.; Carvalho, L.; Farina, M.; Sulla-Menashe, D.; Houghton, R. A. (October 2017). "Tropical forests are a net carbon source based on aboveground measurements of gain and loss". Science. 358 (6360): 230–234. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..230B. doi:10.1126/science.aam5962. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28971966.
  19. ^ Spawn, Seth A.; Sullivan, Clare C.; Lark, Tyler J.; Gibbs, Holly K. (6 April 2020). "Harmonized global maps of above and belowground biomass carbon density in the year 2010". Scientific Data. 7 (1): 112. Bibcode:2020NatSD...7..112S. doi:10.1038/s41597-020-0444-4. ISSN 2052-4463. PMC 7136222. PMID 32249772.
  20. ^ Carolyn Gramling (28 September 2017). "Tropical forests have flipped from sponges to sources of carbon dioxide; A closer look at the world's trees reveals a loss of density in the tropics". Sciencenews.org. 358 (6360): 230–234. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..230B. doi:10.1126/science.aam5962. PMID 28971966. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
  21. ^ Greenfield, Patrick (14 October 2024). "Trees and land absorbed almost no CO2 last year. Is nature's carbon sink failing?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  22. ^ Harvey, Fiona (4 March 2020). "Tropical forests losing their ability to absorb carbon, study finds". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
  23. ^ "Press corner". European Commission – European Commission. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  24. ^ Walker, Xanthe J.; Baltzer, Jennifer L.; Cumming, Steven G.; Day, Nicola J.; Ebert, Christopher; Goetz, Scott; Johnstone, Jill F.; Potter, Stefano; Rogers, Brendan M.; Schuur, Edward A. G.; Turetsky, Merritt R.; Mack, Michelle C. (August 2019). "Increasing wildfires threaten historic carbon sink of boreal forest soils". Nature. 572 (7770): 520–523. Bibcode:2019Natur.572..520W. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1474-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31435055. S2CID 201124728. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  25. ^ "Climate emissions from tropical forest damage 'underestimated by a factor of six'". The Guardian. 31 October 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  26. ^ "Why Keeping Mature Forests Intact Is Key to the Climate Fight". Yale E360. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  27. ^ "Would a Large-scale Reforestation Effort Help Counter the Global Warming Impacts of Deforestation?". Union of Concerned Scientists. 1 September 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  28. ^ "Planting trees is no substitute for natural forests". phys.org. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  29. ^ McDermott, Matthew (22 August 2008). "Can Aerial Reforestation Help Slow Climate Change? Discovery Project Earth Examines Re-Engineering the Planet's Possibilities". TreeHugger. Archived from the original on 30 March 2010. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
  30. ^ Lefebvre, David; Williams, Adrian G.; Kirk, Guy J. D.; Paul; Burgess, J.; Meersmans, Jeroen; Silman, Miles R.; Román-Dañobeytia, Francisco; Farfan, Jhon; Smith, Pete (7 October 2021). "Assessing the carbon capture potential of a reforestation project". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 19907. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1119907L. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99395-6. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8497602. PMID 34620924.
  31. ^ Gorte, Ross W. (2009). Carbon Sequestration in Forests (PDF) (RL31432 ed.). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  32. ^ a b Bank, European Investment (8 December 2022). Forests at the heart of sustainable development: Investing in forests to meet biodiversity and climate goals. European Investment Bank. ISBN 978-92-861-5403-4.
  33. ^ Martin. "Forests, desertification and biodiversity". United Nations Sustainable Development. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  34. ^ Aldhous, J. R.; Low, A. J. (1974). The potential of Western hemlock, Western red cedar, Grand fir and Noblefir in Britain (PDF) (Report). London: H.M. Stationery Office.
  35. ^ Everard, J.E.; Fourt, D.F. (1974). "Monterey Pine and Bishop Pine as plantation trees in southern Britain". Quarterly Journal of Forestry. 68 (2). Royal Forestry Society: 111–125.
  36. ^ "Forest loss". United Nations System-wide Earthwatch. United Nations Environment Programme. Archived from the original on 6 January 2010. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
  37. ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "Africa's underground forest". DW News. 27 May 2019. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  38. ^ "In Semi-Arid Africa, Farmers Are Transforming the "Underground Forest" Into Life-Giving Trees". 11 February 2020. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  39. ^ "What is assisted natural regeneration and where does it work?". World Economic Forum. 15 July 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2023.
  40. ^ Chazdon, Robin; Calixto, Bruno; Oliveira, Mariana; Messinger, Jared; Alves, Julio; Calmon, Miguel; Anderson, Will (March 2022). "The Benefits and Power of Assisted Natural Regeneration". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  41. ^ Ruseva, Tatyana B.; Evans, Tom P.; Fischer, Burnell C. (15 May 2015). "Can incentives make a difference? Assessing the effects of policy tools for encouraging tree-planting on private lands". Journal of Environmental Management. 155: 162–170. Bibcode:2015JEnvM.155..162R. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.03.026. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 25819571.
  42. ^ a b Streck, C.; S.M. Scholz (2006). "The role of forests in global climate change: whence we come and where we go". International Affairs. 82 (5): 861–879. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2006.00575.x.
  43. ^ Shabman, Leonard; Zepp, Laura; Wainger, Lisa; King, Dennis (2002). "Incentives for reforestation of agricultural land: What will a market for carbon sequestration credits contribute?". American Journal of Alternative Agriculture. 17 (3): 116–124. doi:10.1079/AJAA200213. ISSN 0889-1893. JSTOR 44503226.
  44. ^ Shutterstock, Credit (4 February 2020). "What Are Reforestation Tax Benefits?". My Land Plan. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
  45. ^ Andres, Samantha (20 September 2022). "Defining Biodiverse Reforestation: Why It Matters for Climate Change Mitigation and Biodiversity". Plants, People, Planet. 5: 27–38. doi:10.1002/ppp3.10329. hdl:20.500.11820/fa87acb7-8982-43d9-bf03-ab700dd168d8. S2CID 252418294.
  46. ^ Martin, Meredith P.; Woodbury, David J.; Doroski, Danica A.; Nagele, Eliot; Storace, Michael; Cook-Patton, Susan C.; Pasternack, Rachel; Ashton, Mark S. (1 September 2021). "People plant trees for utility more often than for biodiversity or carbon". Biological Conservation. 261: 109224. Bibcode:2021BCons.26109224M. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109224. ISSN 0006-3207.
  47. ^ Smith, Pete; Gregory, Peter J.; van Vuuren, Detlef; Obersteiner, Michael; Havlík, Petr; Rounsevell, Mark; Woods, Jeremy; Stehfest, Elke; Bellarby, Jessica (27 September 2010). "Competition for land". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 365 (1554): 2941–2957. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0127. PMC 2935113. PMID 20713395.
  48. ^ a b Cunningham, S. C.; Mac Nally, R.; Baker, P. J.; Cavagnaro, T. R.; Beringer, J.; Thomson, J. R.; Thompson, R. M. (1 July 2015). "Balancing the environmental benefits of reforestation in agricultural regions". Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 17 (4): 301–317. Bibcode:2015PPEES..17..301C. doi:10.1016/j.ppees.2015.06.001. hdl:2440/95479. ISSN 1433-8319.
  49. ^ Belluscio, Ana (7 November 2009). "Planting trees can shift water flow". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2009.1057. ISSN 1476-4687.
  50. ^ Bond, William J.; Stevens, Nicola; Midgley, Guy F.; Lehmann, Caroline E.R. (November 2019). "The Trouble with Trees: Afforestation Plans for Africa". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 34 (11): 963–965. Bibcode:2019TEcoE..34..963B. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.003. hdl:20.500.11820/ad569ac5-dc12-4420-9517-d8f310ede95e. PMID 31515117. S2CID 202568025.
  51. ^ Dasgupta, Shreya (1 June 2021). "Many Tree-Planting Campaigns Are Based on Flawed Science". The Wire Science. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
  52. ^ a b c Financial Times (21 September 2023). "The illusion of saving the planet with a trillion trees". subs.ft.com. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  53. ^ Schultz, Bill; Brockington, Dan; Coleman, Eric A; Djenontin, Ida; Fischer, Harry W; Fleischman, Forrest; Kashwan, Prakash; Marquardt, Kristina; Pfeifer, Marion; Pritchard, Rose; Ramprasad, Vijay (1 November 2022). "Recognizing the equity implications of restoration priority maps". Environmental Research Letters. 17 (11): 114019. Bibcode:2022ERL....17k4019S. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac9918. ISSN 1748-9326. S2CID 253157136.
  54. ^ "Global forest restoration and the importance of empowering local communities". phys.org. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
  55. ^ "300 million world over can have their forests restored: study". The Hindu. 25 August 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
  56. ^ Erbaugh, J. T.; Pradhan, N.; Adams, J.; Oldekop, J. A.; Agrawal, A.; Brockington, D.; Pritchard, R.; Chhatre, A. (24 August 2020). "Global forest restoration and the importance of prioritizing local communities". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 4 (11): 1472–1476. Bibcode:2020NatEE...4.1472E. doi:10.1038/s41559-020-01282-2. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 32839542. S2CID 221285189. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
  57. ^ Malkamäki, Arttu; D’Amato, Dalia; Hogarth, Nicholas J.; Kanninen, Markku; Pirard, Romain; Toppinen, Anne; Zhou, Wen (July 2019). "Corrigendum of "A systematic review of the socio-economic impacts of large-scale tree plantations, worldwide" [Glob. Environ. Change 53 (2018) 90–103]". Global Environmental Change. 57: 101931. Bibcode:2019GEC....5701931M. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.101931. ISSN 0959-3780. S2CID 197773639.
  58. ^ "Press corner". European Commission – European Commission. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  59. ^ Aerts, Raf; Honnay, Olivier (24 November 2011). "Forest restoration, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning". BMC Ecology. 11 (1): 29. Bibcode:2011BMCE...11...29A. doi:10.1186/1472-6785-11-29. ISSN 1472-6785. PMC 3234175. PMID 22115365.
  60. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 27 March 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  61. ^ Goosem, Stephen P; Tucker, Nigel I. J.; Wet Tropics Management Authority, (issuing body.) (2013), Repairing the rainforest (2 ed.), Wet Tropics Management Authority; [Tarzali, Queensland] : Biotropica Australia, ISBN 978-1-921591-66-2
  62. ^ a b Canadell, J.G.; M.R. Raupach (13 June 2008). "Managing Forests for Climate Change" (PDF). Science. 320 (5882): 1456–1457. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1456C. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.573.5230. doi:10.1126/science.1155458. PMID 18556550. S2CID 35218793.
  63. ^ Walker, Xanthe J.; Baltzer, Jennifer L.; Cumming, Steven G.; Day, Nicola J.; Ebert, Christopher; Goetz, Scott; Johnstone, Jill F.; Potter, Stefano; Rogers, Brendan M.; Schuur, Edward A. G.; Turetsky, Merritt R.; Mack, Michelle C. (August 2019). "Increasing wildfires threaten historic carbon sink of boreal forest soils". Nature. 572 (7770): 520–523. Bibcode:2019Natur.572..520W. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1474-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31435055. S2CID 201124728. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  64. ^ Maclean, Ruth (22 February 2022). "What Do the Protectors of Congo's Peatlands Get in Return?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 16 May 2022.
  65. ^ "Climate emissions from tropical forest damage 'underestimated by a factor of six'". The Guardian. 31 October 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  66. ^ Lewis, Simon L.; Wheeler, Charlotte E.; Mitchard, Edward T. A.; Koch, Alexander (April 2019). "Restoring natural forests is the best way to remove atmospheric carbon". Nature. 568 (7750): 25–28. Bibcode:2019Natur.568...25L. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-01026-8. PMID 30940972. S2CID 91190309.
  67. ^ "New Alliance Launched to Tackle Global Seed Shortage and Scale Reforestation". www.businesswire.com. 21 September 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  68. ^ Banin, Lindsay F.; Raine, Elizabeth H.; Rowland, Lucy M.; Chazdon, Robin L.; Smith, Stuart W.; Rahman, Nur Estya Binte; Butler, Adam; Philipson, Christopher; Applegate, Grahame G.; Axelsson, E. Petter; Budiharta, Sugeng; Chua, Siew Chin; Cutler, Mark E. J.; Elliott, Stephen; Gemita, Elva (January 2023). "The road to recovery: a synthesis of outcomes from ecosystem restoration in tropical and sub-tropical Asian forests". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 378 (1867). doi:10.1098/rstb.2021.0090. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 9661948. PMID 36373930.
  69. ^ "China completes 3,000-km green belt around its biggest desert, state media says". Reuters. Yahoo. 29 November 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  70. ^ James Owen, "World's Forests Rebounding, Study Suggests". National Geographic News, 13 November 2006.
  71. ^ Gittings, John (20 March 2001). "Battling China's Deforestation". The Guardian.
  72. ^ a b c d e f Harrell, Stevan (2023). An Ecological History of Modern China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295751719.
  73. ^ "China to plant 26 billion trees over next decade – People's Daily Online". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
  74. ^ Breyer, Melissa (11 January 2018). "China is planting 16.3 million acres of forest this year". Treehugger. Archived from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  75. ^ Chow, Lorraine. "China to Plant New Forests the Size of Ireland This Year". Ecowatch. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  76. ^ Li, Weida. "China to increase forest coverage to 23 percent by 2020". GBTimes. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
  77. ^ "A story of human bravery and beauty lost and regained". Champions of the Earth. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
  78. ^ "China Focus: From a single tree to a forest – Saihanba's story". Xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2019.
  79. ^ "China directs efforts to protecting ecological environment". The Pyongyang Times. Archived from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  80. ^ "China will aim to plant and conserve 70 billion trees by 2030 as part of the global tree movement". World Economic Forum. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  81. ^ "Shanghai Roots & Shoots –". jgi-shanghai.org. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
  82. ^ "Million Tree Project :: Home". mtpchina.org.
  83. ^ a b Zhan, Jing Vivian (2022). China's Contained Resource Curse: How Minerals Shape State-Capital-Labor Relations. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-04898-9.
  84. ^ Zhang, Xianghua; Busch, Jonah; Huang, Yingli; Fleskens, Luuk; Qin, Huiyan; Qiao, Zhenhua (2023). "Cost of mitigating climate change through reforestation in China". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 6. Bibcode:2023FrFGC...629216Z. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2023.1229216. ISSN 2624-893X.
  85. ^ Kannadasan, Akila (21 March 2019). "Meet Jadav Payeng, India's Forest Man, who created 550 hectares of forest single-handedly". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
  86. ^ "Record 66 million trees planted in 12 hours in India". ABC News. 4 July 2017.
  87. ^ "About Us | Afforestt". www.afforestt.com. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
  88. ^ "The Man Who Has Created 33 Forests in India – He Can Make One in Your Backyard Too!". 11 July 2014.[permanent dead link‍]
  89. ^ ""One Tree My Duty"". www.ekkadam.org. Ek Kadam.
  90. ^ "Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan" (PDF). Forestry Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  91. ^ "Change in Forest Cover (2016)" (PDF). The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery, Forestry Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  92. ^ "Promotion of International Efforts (2016)" (PDF). The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  93. ^ "日光 足尾 体験植樹 案内". Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  94. ^ "Pakistan's Billion Tree Tsunami restores 350,000 hectares of forests and degraded land to surpass Bonn Challenge commitment". IUCN. 11 August 2017.
  95. ^ Chow, Lorraine (30 July 2018). "Pakistan's Next Prime Minister Wants to Plant 10 Billion Trees". Ecowatch. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  96. ^ "Pakistan's virus-idled workers hired to plant trees". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
  97. ^ "COVID-19: Pakistan's 'green stimulus' scheme is a win-win for the environment and the unemployed". World Economic Forum. 30 April 2020. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
  98. ^ "PH reforestation program sees steady growth in 2017". Philippine News Agency. 2 January 2018. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
  99. ^ Galvez, Manny (21 February 2016). "Philippines 5th out of 234 countries on forest gain". The Philippine Star. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
  100. ^ a b c d "Halting Deforestation, an Agroforestry Approach". WWF-SCP. 25 September 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  101. ^ Aram Arkun (3 October 2014). "Armenian Tree Project Celebrates 20th Anniversary". The Armenian Mirror-Spectator.
  102. ^ "583,513 Trees Planted in Fall 2023: A Record-Breaking Achievement!". My Forest Armenia. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  103. ^ "Iceland is replanting its forests 1,000 years after vikings razed them". 6 April 2018.
  104. ^ "Spades, saplings and sheep: Iceland battles to restore long-lost forests". Skógræktin.
  105. ^ Rosane, Olivia (3 September 2019). "Ireland to Plant 440 Million Trees in 20 Years to Fight Climate Change". Ecowatch. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
  106. ^ "Ireland's planning to make its Emerald Isle even greener". World Economic Forum. 6 September 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2022.
  107. ^ Glasgow, Denis Staunton. "Cop26: Ireland to sign global pledge for 30% cut in methane emissions". The Irish Times. Retrieved 16 May 2022.
  108. ^ a b c d Stubenrauch, Jessica; Ekardt, Felix; Hagemann, Katharina; Garske, Beatrice (2022). Forest Governance Overcoming Trade-Offs between Land-Use Pressures, Climate and Biodiversity Protection. Switzerland: Springer. p. 63. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-99184-5. ISBN 978-3-030-99183-8. S2CID 248302731. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  109. ^ "Grußwort – Bundeswaldinventur". bundeswaldinventur.de.
  110. ^ "How millions of trees brought a broken landscape back to life". The Guardian. 6 August 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  111. ^ "The Northern Forest". Woodland Trust. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  112. ^ "Reality Check: Are millions of trees being planted?". BBC News. 26 October 2017. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  113. ^ "Tree-planting in England falls 71% short of government target". The Guardian. 13 June 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  114. ^ "Disappointing planting figures in England still far below Government target". Woodland Trust. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  115. ^ Brand, David; Moshe, Itzhak; Shaler, Moshe; Zuk, Aviram; Riov, Dr Joseph (2011). Forestry for People (PDF). UN. pp. 273–280. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2018. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  116. ^ "Reforesting Israel, Restoring Israel". AllCreation.org. 22 February 2018. Retrieved 16 May 2022.
  117. ^ "Forest and landscape restoration in Lebanon". Britannica. Archived from the original on 17 March 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2018.
  118. ^ "Lebanon National Forest Program 2015–2025, Ministry of Agriculture" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 May 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2018.
  119. ^ "Forest and landscape restoration in Lebanon". FAO. 29 April 2016. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
  120. ^ "Lebanese Forest Conservation Law". Jabal Rihan. 24 July 1996. Archived from the original on 26 May 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2018.
  121. ^ "Restoring Lebanon's cedar forests". Share America. 10 January 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
  122. ^ "Sowing Seeds Today for a Better Tomorrow". Lebanon Reforestation. Archived from the original on 26 May 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2018.
  123. ^ "Turkey goes greener with new afforestation campaign". Daily Sabah. 21 March 2018.
  124. ^ a b Colak and Rotherham (2006). "A Review of the Forest Vegetation of Turkey: Its Status Past and Present and Its Future Conservation" (PDF). Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 106 B (3): 343–354. doi:10.3318/BIOE.2006.106.3.343. S2CID 46955795. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2018.
  125. ^ Willcox, G. H. (1974). "A History of Deforestation as Indicated by Charcoal Analysis of Four Sites in Eastern Anatolia". Anatolian Studies. 24: 117–133. doi:10.2307/3642603. JSTOR 3642603. S2CID 131664221.
  126. ^ Hughes, J.D. (2010). "Ancient Deforestation Revisited". Journal of the History of Biology. 44 (1): 43–57. doi:10.1007/s10739-010-9247-3. PMID 20669043. S2CID 24975334.
  127. ^ "Conference Review: "Environmental History of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey", University of Hamburg, 27-28 October 2017". H Net.
  128. ^ Lund, H. Gyde (2014). "What Is a Forest? Definitions Do Make a Difference an Example from Turkey". Avrasya Terim Dergisi. 2 (1): 1–8. Archived from the original on 14 September 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  129. ^ "Turkey Forests". General Directorate of Forestry. Archived from the original on 14 September 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  130. ^ "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015: Country Report: Turkey" (PDF). FAO.
  131. ^ "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 Desk Reference" (PDF). FAO.
  132. ^ a b Turkish Greenhouse Gas Inventory report (2019), zip file
  133. ^ "Atlas of Forest Landscape Restoration Opportunities". World Resources Institute. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  134. ^ Gökbulak, Ferhat; Erdoğan, Betül Uygur; Yıldırım, Hasan Tezcan; Özçelik, Mehmet S. (20 July 2018). "Causes of land degradation and rehabilitation efforts of rangelands in Turkey". Forestist. 68 (2): 106–113.[permanent dead link‍]
  135. ^ Kent, Sami (30 January 2020). "Most of 11m trees planted in Turkish project 'may be dead'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
  136. ^ "Indicator: Forest area". Natural Resources Canada. Government of Canada. August 2014. Archived from the original on 3 August 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  137. ^ "How does the forest industry contribute to the economy?". Natural Resources Canada. Government of Canada. 26 August 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  138. ^ "Sustainable forest management in Canada". Natural Resources Canada. Government of Canada. 16 April 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  139. ^ "Deforestation in Canada: Key myths and facts". Natural Resources Canada. Government of Canada. 27 June 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  140. ^ "Forest Service Chief testifies before Senate appropriations committee on 2013 agency budget". US Forest Service. 18 April 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  141. ^ "U.S. Forest Resource Facts and Historical Trends" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 December 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  142. ^ "Reforestation Overview". U.S. Forest Service. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  143. ^ Frazin, Rachel; Beitsch, Rebecca (2 February 2020). "GOP bill will seek to commit US to planting 3.3 billion trees annually". The Hill. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
  144. ^ Oxfam UK, Voices, Spring/Summer 2024, p. 12
  145. ^ "Costa Rica has doubled its tropical rainforests in just a few decades. Here's how". World Economic Forum. 13 June 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  146. ^ Andrea D. Steffen (4 June 2019). "Costa Rica Doubled Its Forest Cover In Just 30 Years!". Intelligent Living. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  147. ^ Dey, Subhashish; Sreenivasulu, Anduri; Veerendra, G. T. N.; Rao, K. Venkateswara; Babu, P. S. S. Anjaneya (1 September 2022). "Renewable energy present status and future potentials in India: An overview". Innovation and Green Development. 1 (1): 100006. Bibcode:2022InnGD...100006D. doi:10.1016/j.igd.2022.100006. ISSN 2949-7531. S2CID 253649681.
  148. ^ "Forests and Climate Change". MIT Climate Portal. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
  149. ^ a b Pancel, Laslo (2016), Pancel, Laslo; Köhl, Michael (eds.), "Reforestation Incentives Systems for Tree Plantations in the Tropics∗", Tropical Forestry Handbook, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 1531–1547, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-54601-3_123, ISBN 978-3-642-54601-3, retrieved 14 May 2022
  150. ^ Steffen, Andrea D. (4 June 2019). "Costa Rica Doubled Its Forest Cover In Just 30 Years!". Intelligent Living. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
  151. ^ Pancel, Laslo (2016), Pancel, Laslo; Köhl, Michael (eds.), "Reforestation Incentives Systems for Tree Plantations in the Tropics∗", Tropical Forestry Handbook, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 1531–1547, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-54601-3_123, ISBN 978-3-642-54601-3, retrieved 14 August 2023
  152. ^ Vizzuality. "Peru Deforestation Rates & Statistics | GFW". www.globalforestwatch.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  153. ^ "Engineering For People Design Brief". EcoSwell. August 2020.
  154. ^ a b c Damonte, Gerardo H. (2016). "The "Blind" State: Government Quest for Formalization and Conflict with Small-Scale Miners in the Peruvian Amazon: The "Blind" State". Antipode. 48 (4): 956–976. doi:10.1111/anti.12230.
  155. ^ VonZabern, Karl (2018). "From Protests to Policy: How the Institutionalization of Indigenous Movements Affects Environmental Policy Related to Resource Extraction in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia". Carolina Digital Repository.[permanent dead link‍]
  156. ^ Mohammed, Omar (22 December 2015). "African countries are building a "Great Green Wall" to beat back the Sahara desert". Quartz Africa.
  157. ^ Davidson, Jordan (30 July 2019). "Ethiopia Plants Record-Breaking 350 Million Trees". Ecowatch. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  158. ^ a b c d e Akpan-ebe, Isidore Nelson (2017). "Reforestation in Nigeria: History, current practice and future perspectives". Reforesta. 3 (3): 105–115. doi:10.21750/REFOR.3.09.33. ISSN 2466-4367.   This article incorporates text available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  159. ^ Ngounou, Boris (15 September 2021). "NIGERIA: Kano State launches a one million tree reforestation campaign | Afrik 21". Afrik 21. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  160. ^ "Trees for the Future". Archived from the original on 13 June 2010.
  161. ^ "Ecologi Public Impact and Operations Ledger". Google Docs.
  162. ^ "The Green Belt Movement". www.greenbeltmovement.org.
  163. ^ Williams, David (30 October 2019). "YouTube star MrBeast wants to plant 20 million trees. Elon Musk, Jack Dorsey, and more are helping him do it". CNN. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  164. ^ "Trees For Life". 26 July 2021. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021.
  165. ^ "From Little Things Big Things Grow". The Southern Cross. 19 July 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021.
  166. ^ Hook, Leslie (28 July 2020). "Business turns to nature to fight climate change". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2020.
  167. ^ "Tree-planting programs can do more harm than good". Environment. 26 April 2019. Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
  168. ^ "The Role of Planted Forests in Forest Landscape Restoration" (PDF).
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Reforestation.
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Reforestation&oldid=1265053664"