Child abuse

(Redirected from Child Abuse)

Child abuse (also called child endangerment or child maltreatment) is physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological maltreatment or neglect of a child, especially by a parent or a caregiver. Child abuse may include any act or failure to act by a parent or a caregiver that results in actual or potential wrongful harm to a child and can occur in a child's home, or in organizations, schools, or communities the child interacts with.

Child abuse awareness banner in Sarasota, Florida

Different jurisdictions have different requirements for mandatory reporting and have developed different definitions of what constitutes child abuse, and therefore have different criteria to remove children from their families or to prosecute a criminal charge.

History

edit

As late as the 19th century, cruelty to children, perpetrated by employers and teachers, was commonplace and widespread, and corporal punishment was customary in many countries, but in the first half of the 19th century, pathologists studying filicide (the parental killing of children) reported cases of death from paternal rage,[1] recurrent physical maltreatment,[2] starvation,[3] and sexual abuse.[4] In an 1860 paper, French forensic medical expert Auguste Ambroise Tardieu gathered together a series of 32 such cases, of which 18 were fatal, the children dying from starvation and/or recurrent physical abuse; it included the case of Adeline Defert, who was returned by her grandparents at the age of 8, and for 9 years tortured by her parents – whipped every day, hung up by her thumbs and beaten with a nailed plank, burnt with hot coals and her wounds bathed in nitric acid, and deflorated with a baton.[5] Tardieu made home visits and observed the effect on the children; he noticed that the sadness and fear on their faces disappeared when they were placed under protection. He commented, "When we consider the tender age of these poor defenceless beings, subjected daily and almost hourly to savage atrocities, unimaginable tortures and harsh privation, their lives one long martyrdom – and when we face the fact that their tormentors are the very mothers who gave them life, we are confronted with one of the most appalling problems that can disturb the soul of a moralist, or the conscience of justice".[6] His observations were echoed by Boileau de Castélnau (who introduced the term misopédie – hatred of children),[7] and confirmed by Aubry[8] and several theses.[9][10][11]

These early French observations failed to cross the language barrier, and other nations remained ignorant of the cause of many traumatic lesions in infants and toddlers; almost one hundred years would pass before humankind began to systematically confront Tardieu's "appalling problem". In the 20th century, evidence began to accumulate from pathology and paediatric radiology, particularly in relation to chronic subdural haematoma and limb fractures: subdural haematoma had a curious bimodal distribution, idiopathic in infants and traumatic in adults,[12] while unexplained ossifying periostitis of the long bones was similar to that occurring after breech extractions.[13] In 1946, John Caffey, the American founder of paediatric radiology, drew attention to the association of long bone fractures and chronic subdural haematoma,[14] and, in 1955, it was noticed that infants removed from the care of aggressive, immature and emotionally ill parents developed no new lesions.[15]

As a result, professional inquiry into the topic began again in the 1960s.[16] The July 1962 publication of the paper "The Battered Child-Syndrome" authored principally by pediatrician C. Henry Kempe and published in The Journal of the American Medical Association represents the moment that child maltreatment entered mainstream awareness. Before the article's publication, injuries to children—even repeated bone fractures—were not commonly recognized as the results of intentional trauma. Instead, physicians often looked for undiagnosed bone diseases or accepted parents' accounts of accidental mishaps such as falls or assaults by neighborhood bullies.[17]: 100–103 

The study of child abuse emerged as an academic discipline in the early 1970s in the United States. Elisabeth Young-Bruehl maintained that despite the growing numbers of child advocates and interest in protecting children which took place, the grouping of children into "the abused" and the "non-abused" created an artificial distinction that narrowed the concept of children's rights to simply protection from maltreatment, and blocked investigation of how children are discriminated against in society generally. Another effect of the way child abuse and neglect have been studied, according to Young-Bruehl, was to close off consideration of how children themselves perceive maltreatment and the importance they place on adults' attitudes toward them. Young-Bruehl wrote that when the belief in children's inherent inferiority to adults is present in society, all children suffer whether or not their treatment is labeled as "abuse".[17]: 15–16 

Two of the many academics who studied and published about child abuse and neglect, Jeanne M. Giovannoni and Rosina M. Bercerra, published Defining Child Abuse in 1979. In it (according to the publishers) they utilize the methodology of social research to define child abuse, illuminate strategies for remedying and preventing child abuse, and examine how professionals and the community view child mistreatment.[18][19]

Definitions

edit

Definitions of what constitutes child abuse vary among professionals, between social and cultural groups, and across time.[20][21] The terms abuse and maltreatment are often used interchangeably in the literature.[22]: 11  Child maltreatment can also be an umbrella term covering all forms of child abuse and child neglect.[16] Defining child maltreatment depends on prevailing cultural values as they relate to children, child development, and parenting.[23] Definitions of child maltreatment can vary across the sectors of society which deal with the issue,[23] such as child protection agencies, legal and medical communities, public health officials, researchers, practitioners, and child advocates. Since members of these various fields tend to use their own definitions, communication across disciplines can be limited, hampering efforts to identify, assess, track, treat, and prevent child maltreatment.[22]: 3 [24]

In general, abuse refers to (usually deliberate) acts of commission while neglect refers to acts of omission.[16][25] Child maltreatment includes both acts of commission and acts of omission on the part of parents or caregivers that cause actual or threatened harm to a child.[16] Some health professionals and authors consider neglect as part of the definition of abuse, while others do not; this is because the harm may have been unintentional, or because the caregivers did not understand the severity of the problem, which may have been the result of cultural beliefs about how to raise a child.[26][27] Delayed effects of child abuse and neglect, especially emotional neglect, and the diversity of acts that qualify as child abuse, are also factors.[27]

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines child abuse and child maltreatment as "all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child's health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power."[28] The WHO also says, "Violence against children includes all forms of violence against people under 18 years old, whether perpetrated by parents or other caregivers, peers, romantic partners, or strangers."[29] In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses the term child maltreatment to refer to both acts of commission (abuse), which include "words or overt actions that cause harm, potential harm, or threat of harm to a child", and acts of omission (neglect), meaning "the failure to provide for a child's basic physical, emotional, or educational needs or to protect a child from harm or potential harm".[22]: 11  The United States federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum, "any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation" or "an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm".[30][31]

Forms of abuse

edit

As of 2006, the World Health Organization distinguishes four types of child maltreatment: physical abuse; sexual abuse; emotional (or psychological) abuse; and neglect.[32]

Physical abuse

edit

Among professionals and the general public, there is disagreement as to what behaviors constitute physical abuse of a child.[33] Physical abuse often does not occur in isolation but as part of a constellation of behaviors including authoritarian control, anxiety-provoking behavior, and a lack of parental warmth.[34] The WHO defines physical abuse as:

Intentional use of physical force against the child that results in – or has a high likelihood of resulting in – harm for the child's health, survival, development, or dignity. This includes hitting, beating, kicking, shaking, biting, strangling, scalding, burning, poisoning, and suffocating. Much physical violence against children in the home is inflicted with the object of punishing.[32]

Overlapping definitions of physical abuse and physical punishment of children highlight a subtle or non-existent distinction between abuse and punishment,[35] but most physical abuse is physical punishment "in intent, form, and effect".[36] As of 2006, for instance, Paulo Sergio Pinheiro wrote in the UN Secretary-General's Study on Violence Against Children:

Corporal punishment involves hitting ('smacking', 'slapping', 'spanking') children, with the hand or with an implement – whip, stick, belt, shoe, wooden spoon, etc. But it can also involve, for example, kicking, shaking or throwing children, scratching, pinching, biting, pulling hair or boxing ears, forcing children to stay in uncomfortable positions, burning, scalding, or forced ingestion (for example, washing children's mouths out with soap or forcing them to swallow hot spices).[37]

Most nations with child abuse laws deem the deliberate infliction of serious injuries, or actions that place the child at obvious risk of serious injury or death, to be illegal.[38] Bruises, scratches, burns, broken bones, lacerations—as well as repeated "mishaps", and rough treatment that could cause physical injuries—can be physical abuse.[39] Multiple injuries or fractures at different stages of healing can raise suspicion of abuse.

The psychologist Alice Miller, noted for her books on child abuse, took the view that humiliations, spankings, and beatings, slaps in the face, etc. are all forms of abuse, because they injure the integrity and dignity of a child, even if their consequences are not visible right away.[40]

Physical abuse as a child can lead to physical and mental difficulties in the future, including re-victimization, personality disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), dissociative disorders, depression, anxiety, suicidal ideation, eating disorders, substance use disorders, and aggression. Physical abuse in childhood has also been linked to homelessness in adulthood.[41]

Battered-child syndrome

edit

C. Henry Kempe and his colleagues were the first to describe the battered-child syndrome in 1962.[42] The battered-child syndrome is a term used to describe a collection of injuries that young children sustain as a result of repeated physical abuse or neglect.[43][44] These symptoms may include: fractures of bones, multiple soft tissue injuries, subdural hematoma (bleeding in the brain), malnutrition, and poor skin hygiene.[44][45]

Children suffering from battered-child syndrome may come to the doctor's attention for a problem unrelated to abuse or after experiencing an acute injury, but when examined, they show signs of long-term abuse.[46] In most cases, the caretakers try to justify the visible injuries by blaming them on minor accidents.[46] When asked, parents may attribute the injuries to a child's behaviour or habits, such as being fussy or clumsy. Despite the abuse, the child may show attachment to the parent.[46]

Sexual abuse

edit

Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation.[47] Sexual abuse refers to the participation of a child in a sexual act aimed toward the physical gratification or the financial profit of the person committing the act.[39][48] Forms of CSA include asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities (regardless of the outcome), indecent exposure of the genitals to a child, displaying pornography to a child, actual sexual contact with a child, physical contact with the child's genitals, viewing of the child's genitalia without physical contact, or using a child to produce child pornography.[47][49][50] Selling the sexual services of children may be viewed and treated as child abuse rather than simple incarceration.[51]

Effects of child sexual abuse on the victim(s) include guilt and self-blame, flashbacks, nightmares, insomnia, fear of things associated with the abuse (including objects, smells, places, doctor's visits, etc.), self-esteem difficulties, sexual dysfunction, chronic pain, addiction, self-injury, suicidal ideation, somatic complaints, depression,[52] PTSD,[53] anxiety,[54] other mental illnesses including borderline personality disorder[55] and dissociative identity disorder,[55] propensity to re-victimization in adulthood,[56] bulimia nervosa,[57] and physical injury to the child, among other problems.[58] Children who are the victims are also at an increased risk of sexually transmitted infections due to their immature immune systems and a high potential for mucosal tears during forced sexual contact.[59] Sexual victimization at a young age has been correlated with several risk factors for contracting HIV including decreased knowledge of sexual topics, increased prevalence of HIV, engagement in risky sexual practices, condom avoidance, lower knowledge of safe sex practices, frequent changing of sexual partners, and more years of sexual activity.[59]

As of 2016, in the United States, about 15% to 25% of women and 5% to 15% of men were sexually abused when they were children.[60][61][62] Most sexual abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims; approximately 30% are relatives of the child, most often brothers, sisters, fathers, mothers, uncles or cousins; around 60% are other acquaintances such as friends of the family, babysitters, or neighbours; strangers are the offenders in approximately 10% of child sexual abuse cases.[60] In over one-third of cases, the perpetrator is also a minor.[63]

In 1999 the BBC reported on the RAHI Foundation's survey of sexual abuse in India, in which 76% of respondents said they had been abused as children, 40% of those stating the perpetrator was a family member.[64]

Psychological abuse

edit

There are multiple definitions of child psychological abuse:

  • In 1995, The American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC) defined it as: spurning, terrorizing, isolating, exploiting, corrupting, denying emotional responsiveness, or neglect" or "A repeated pattern of caregiver behavior or extreme incident(s) that convey to children that they are worthless, flawed, unloved, unwanted, endangered, or only of value in meeting another's needs"[65]
  • In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) added Child Psychological Abuse to the DSM-5, describing it as "nonaccidental verbal or symbolic acts by a child's parent or caregiver that result, or have reasonable potential to result, in significant psychological harm to the child."[66]
  • In the United States, states' laws vary, but most have laws against "mental injury"[67] against minors.
  • Some have defined it as the production of psychological and social defects in the growth of a minor as a result of behavior such as loud yelling, coarse and rude attitude, inattention, harsh criticism, and denigration of the child's personality.[39] Other examples include name-calling, ridicule, degradation, destruction of personal belongings, torture or killing of a pet, excessive or extreme unconstructive criticism, inappropriate or excessive demands, withholding communication, and routine labeling or humiliation.[68]
  • Many psychological abuse that happens to adults are harder to change to improve[69] and turn back due to fixed habits and living style after abuse. Child abuse can create a big toll on psychological behavior that put many risk to unhealthy thoughts. In order to minimize these negative outcomes, many need to seek help to spread awareness to those around them for preventative measures.[70]

In 2014, the APA found that child psychological abuse is the most prevalent form of childhood abuse in the United States, affecting nearly 3 million children annually.[71] Research has suggested that the consequences of child psychological abuse may be equally as harmful as those of sexual or physical abuse.[71][72][73]

Victims of emotional abuse may react by distancing themselves from the abuser, internalizing the abusive words, or fighting back by insulting the abuser. Emotional abuse can result in abnormal or disrupted attachment development, a tendency for victims to blame themselves (self-blame) for the abuse, learned helplessness, and overly passive behavior in order to avoid such a situation again.[68]

Neglect

edit

Child neglect is the failure of a parent or other person with responsibility for the child, to provide needed food, clothing, shelter, medical care, or supervision to the degree that the child's health, safety or well-being may be threatened with harm. Neglect is also a lack of attention from the people surrounding a child, and the non-provision of the relevant and adequate necessities for the child's survival, which would be a lack of attention, love, and nurturing.[39]

Some observable signs of child neglect include: the child is frequently absent from school, begs or steals food or money, lacks needed medical and dental care, is consistently dirty, or lacks appropriate clothing for the weather.[74] The 2010 Child Maltreatment Report (NCANDS), a yearly United States federal government report based on data supplied by state Child Protective Services (CPS) Agencies in the U.S., found that neglect/neglectful behavior was the "most common form of child maltreatment".[75]

Neglectful acts can be divided into six sub-categories:[25]

  • Supervisory neglect: characterized by the absence of a parent or guardian which can lead to physical harm, sexual abuse, or criminal behavior;
  • Physical neglect: characterized by the failure to provide the basic physical necessities, such as a safe and clean home;
  • Medical neglect: characterized by the lack of providing medical care;
  • Emotional neglect: characterized by a lack of nurturance, encouragement, and support;
  • Educational neglect: characterized by the caregivers lack to provide an education and additional resources to actively participate in the school system; and
  • Abandonment: when the parent or guardian leaves a child alone for a long period of time without a babysitter or caretaker.

Neglected children may experience delays in physical and psychosocial development, possibly resulting in psychopathology and impaired neuropsychological functions including executive function, attention, processing speed, language, memory and social skills.[76] Researchers investigating maltreated children have repeatedly found that neglected children in the foster and adoptive populations manifest different emotional and behavioral reactions to regain lost or secure relationships and are frequently reported to have disorganized attachments and a need to control their environment. Such children are not likely to view caregivers as being a source of safety, and instead typically show an increase in aggressive and hyperactive behaviors which may disrupt healthy or secure attachment with their adopted parents. These children seem to have learned to adapt to an abusive and inconsistent caregiver by becoming cautiously self-reliant, and are often described as glib, manipulative and disingenuous in their interactions with others as they move through childhood.[77] Children who are victims of neglect can have a more difficult time forming and maintaining relationships, such as romantic or friendship, later in life due to the lack of attachment they had in their earlier stages of life.

Effects

edit

Child abuse can result in immediate adverse physical effects but it is also strongly associated with developmental problems[78] and with many chronic physical and psychological effects, including subsequent ill-health, including higher rates of chronic conditions, high-risk health behaviors and shortened lifespan.[79][80] Child abuse has also been linked to suicide, according to a May 2019 study, published in the Cambridge University Press.[81]

Maltreated children may be at risk to become maltreating adults.[82][83][84]

Emotional

edit

Physical and emotional abuse have comparable effects on a child's emotional state and have been linked to childhood depression, low self-compassion, and negative automatic thoughts.[85] Some research suggests that high stress levels from child abuse may cause structural and functional changes within the brain, and therefore cause emotional and social disruptions.[86] Abused children can grow up experiencing insecurities, low self-esteem, and lack of development. Many abused children experience ongoing difficulties with trust, social withdrawal, trouble in school, and forming relationships.[87]

Babies and other young children can be affected differently by abuse than their older counterparts. Babies and pre-school children who are being emotionally abused or neglected may be overly affectionate towards strangers or people they have not known for very long.[88] They can lack confidence or become anxious, appear to not have a close relationship with their parent, exhibit aggressive behavior or act nasty towards other children and animals.[88] Older children may use foul language or act in a markedly different way to other children at the same age, struggle to control strong emotions, seem isolated from their parents, lack social skills or have few, if any, friends.[88]

Children can also experience reactive attachment disorder (RAD). RAD is defined as markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness, that usually begins before the age of 5 years.[89] RAD can present as a persistent failure to start or respond in a developmentally appropriate fashion to most social situations. The long-term impact of emotional abuse has not been studied widely, but recent studies have begun to document its long-term consequences. Emotional abuse has been linked to increased depression, anxiety, and difficulties in interpersonal relationships (Spertus, Wong, Halligan, & Seremetis, 2003).[89] Victims of child abuse and neglect are more likely to commit crimes as juveniles and adults.[90]

Domestic violence also takes its toll on children; although the child is not the one being abused, the child witnessing the domestic violence is greatly influenced as well. Research studies conducted such as the "Longitudinal Study on the Effects of Child Abuse and Children's Exposure to Domestic Violence", show that 36.8% of children engage in felony assault compared to the 47.5% of abused/assaulted children. Research has shown that children exposed to domestic violence increases the chances of experienced behavioral and emotional problems (depression, irritability, anxiety, academic problems, and problems in language development).[91]

Physical

edit
 
Rib fractures in an infant secondary to child abuse

The immediate physical effects of abuse or neglect can be relatively minor (bruises or cuts) or severe (broken bones, hemorrhage, death). Certain injuries, such as rib fractures or femoral fractures in infants that are not yet walking, may increase suspicion of child physical abuse, although such injuries are only seen in a fraction of children suffering physical abuse.[92][93] Cigarette burns or scald injuries may also prompt evaluation for child physical abuse.[94]

The long-term impact of child abuse and neglect on physical health and development can be:

  • Shaken baby syndrome. Shaking a baby is a common form of child abuse that often results in permanent neurological damage (80% of cases) or death (30% of cases).[95] Damage results from intracranial hypertension (increased pressure in the skull) after bleeding in the brain, damage to the spinal cord and neck, and rib or bone fractures.[96]
  • Impaired brain development. Child abuse and neglect have been shown, in some cases, to cause important regions of the brain to fail to form or grow properly, resulting in impaired development.[97][98] Structural brain changes as a result of child abuse or neglect include overall smaller brain volume, hippocampal atrophy, prefrontal cortex dysfunction, decreased corpus callosum density, and delays in the myelination of synapses.[99][100] These alterations in brain maturation have long-term consequences for cognitive, language, and academic abilities.[101] In addition, these neurological changes impact the amygdala and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis which are involved in stress response and may cause PTSD symptoms.[100]
  • Poor physical health. In addition to possible immediate adverse physical effects, household dysfunction and childhood maltreatment are strongly associated with many chronic physical and psychological effects, including subsequent ill-health in childhood,[102] adolescence[103] and adulthood, with higher rates of chronic conditions, high-risk health behaviors and shortened lifespan.[79][80] Adults who experienced abuse or neglect during childhood are more likely to have physical ailments such as allergies, arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, high blood pressure, and ulcers.[80][104][105][106] There may be a higher risk of developing cancer later in life,[107] as well as possible immune dysfunction.[108]
  • Exposure to violence during childhood is associated with shortened telomeres and with reduced telomerase activity.[109] The increased rate of telomere length reduction correlates to a reduction in lifespan of 7 to 15 years.[108]
  • Data from a recent study supports previous findings that specific neurobiochemical changes are linked to exposure to violence and abuse, several biological pathways can possibly lead to the development of illness, and certain physiological mechanisms can moderate how severe illnesses become in patients with past experience with violence or abuse.[110]
  • Recent studies give evidence of a link between stress occurring early in life and epigenetic modifications that last into adulthood.[98][111]

Adverse Childhood Experiences Study

edit
 
Possible ways for adverse childhood experiences such as abuse and neglect to influence health and well-being throughout the lifespan, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention[112]

The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study is a long-running investigation into the relationship between childhood adversity, including various forms of abuse and neglect, and health problems in later life. The initial phase of the study was conducted in San Diego, California from 1995 to 1997.[112] The World Health Organization summarizes the study as:[32]

childhood maltreatment and household dysfunction contribute to the development – decades later – of the chronic diseases that are the most common causes of death and disability in the United States... A strong relationship was seen between the number of adverse experiences (including physical and sexual abuse in childhood) and self-reports of cigarette smoking, obesity, physical inactivity, alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, attempted suicide, sexual promiscuity and sexually transmitted diseases in later life.

A long-term study of adults retrospectively reporting adverse childhood experiences including verbal, physical and sexual abuse, as well as other forms of childhood trauma found 25.9% of adults reported verbal abuse as children, 14.8% reported physical abuse, and 12.2% reported sexual abuse. Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System corroborate these high rates.[113] There is a high correlation between the number of different adverse childhood experiences (A.C.E.s) and risk for poor health outcomes in adults including cancer, heart attack, mental illness, reduced longevity, and drug and alcohol abuse.[114] An anonymous self-reporting survey of Washington State students finds 6–7% of 8th, 10th and 12th grade students actually attempt suicide. Rates of depression are twice as high. Other risk behaviors are even higher.[115] There is a relationship between child physical and sexual abuse and suicide.[116] For legal and cultural reasons as well as fears by children of being taken away from their parents most childhood abuse goes unreported and unsubstantiated.

It has been discovered that childhood abuse can lead to the addiction of drugs and alcohol in adolescence and adult life. Studies show that any type of abuse experienced in childhood can cause neurological changes making an individual more prone to addictive tendencies. A significant study examined 900 court cases of children who had experienced sexual and physical abuse along with neglect. The study found that a large sum of the children who were abused are now currently addicted to alcohol. This case study outlines how addiction is a significant effect of childhood abuse.[117]

Psychological

edit

Children who have a history of neglect or physical abuse are at risk of developing psychiatric problems,[118][119] or a disorganized attachment style.[120][121][122] In addition, children who experience child abuse or neglect are 59% more likely to be arrested as juveniles, 28% more likely to be arrested as adults, and 30% more likely to commit violent crime.[123] Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms,[124] as well as anxiety, depressive, and acting out symptoms.[125][126] A study by Dante Cicchetti found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants exhibited symptoms of disorganized attachment.[127][128] When some of these children become parents, especially if they have PTSD, dissociative symptoms, and other sequelae of child abuse, they may encounter difficulty when faced with their infant and young children's needs and normative distress, which may in turn lead to adverse consequences for their child's social-emotional development.[129][130] Additionally, children may find it difficult to feel empathy towards themselves or others, which may cause them to feel alone and unable to make friends.[91] Despite these potential difficulties, psychosocial intervention can be effective, at least in some cases, in changing the ways maltreated parents think about their young children.[131]

Physically abused children may exhibit various types of psychopathology and behavioral deviancy. These include a general impairment of ego functioning, which can be associated with cognitive and intellectual problems.[132] They may also struggle with forming healthy relationships and may fail to develop basic trust in others.[132] Additionally, these children may experience traumatic reactions that can result in acute anxiety states.[132] As a way of coping, physically abused children may rely on primitive defense mechanisms such as projection, introjection, splitting, and denial.[132] They may also have impaired impulse control and a negative self-concept, which can lead to self-destructive behavior.[132]

Victims of childhood abuse also have different types of physical health problems later in life. Some reportedly have some type of chronic head, abdominal, pelvic, or muscular pain with no identifiable reason.[133] Even though the majority of childhood abuse victims know or believe that their abuse is, or can be, the cause of different health problems in their adult life, for the great majority their abuse was not directly associated with those problems, indicating that they were most likely diagnosed with other possible causes for their health problems, instead of their childhood abuse.[133] One long-term study found that up to 80% of abused people had at least one psychiatric disorder at age 21, with problems including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and suicide attempts.[134] One Canadian hospital found that between 36% and 76% of women mental health outpatients had been sexually abused, as had 58% of female patients with schizophrenia and 23% of male patients with schizophrenia.[135] A recent study has discovered that a crucial structure in the brain's reward circuits is compromised by childhood abuse and neglect, and predicts Depressive Symptoms later in life.[136]

In the case of 23 of the 27 illnesses listed in the questionnaire of a French INSEE survey, some statistically significant correlations were found between repeated illness and family traumas encountered by the child before the age of 18 years. According to Georges Menahem, the French sociologist who found out these correlations by studying health inequalities, these relationships show that inequalities in illness and suffering are not only social. Health inequality also has its origins in the family, where it is associated with the degrees of lasting affective problems (lack of affection, parental discord, the prolonged absence of a parent, or a serious illness affecting either the mother or father) that individuals report having experienced in childhood.[137]

Many children who have been abused in any form develop some sort of psychological disorder. These disorders may include: anxiety, depression, eating disorders, OCD, co-dependency, or even a lack of human connections. There is also a slight tendency for children who have been abused to become child abusers themselves. In the U.S. in 2013, of the 294,000 reported child abuse cases only 81,124 received any sort of counseling or therapy. Treatment is greatly important for abused children.[138]

On the other hand, there are some children who are raised in child abuse, but who manage to do unexpectedly well later in life regarding the preconditions. Such children have been termed dandelion children, as inspired from the way that dandelions seem to prosper irrespective of soil, sun, drought, or rain.[139] Such children (or currently grown-ups) are of high interest in finding factors that mitigate the effects of child abuse.

Causes

edit

Child abuse is a complex phenomenon with multiple causes.[140] No single factor can be identified as to why some adults behave abusively or neglectfully toward children. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (ISPCAN) identify multiple factors at the level of the individual, their relationships, their local community, and their society at large, that combine to influence the occurrence of child maltreatment. At the individual level, studies have shown that age, mental health, and substance use, and a personal history of abuse may serve as risk factors of child abuse.[141] At the level of society, factors contributing to child maltreatment include cultural norms that encourage harsh physical punishment of children, economic inequality, and the lack of social safety nets.[32] WHO and ISPCAN state that understanding the complex interplay of various risk factors is vital for dealing with the problem of child maltreatment.[32]

Factors related to relationships include marital strife and tension. Parents who physically abuse their spouses are more likely than others to physically abuse their children.[142] However, it is impossible to know whether marital strife is a cause of child abuse, or if both the marital strife and the abuse are caused by tendencies in the abuser.[142] Parents may also set expectations for their child that are clearly beyond the child's capability (e.g., preschool children who are expected to be totally responsible for self-care or provision of nurturance to parents), and the resulting frustration caused by the child's non-compliance may function as a contributory factor of the occurrence of child abuse.[143]

 
A girl who was burned during religious violence in Orissa, India

Most acts of physical violence against children are undertaken with the intent to punish.[144] In the United States, interviews with parents reveal that as many as two thirds of documented instances of physical abuse begin as acts of corporal punishment meant to correct a child's behavior, while a large-scale Canadian study found that three quarters of substantiated cases of physical abuse of children have occurred within the context of physical punishment.[145] Other studies have shown that children and infants who are spanked by parents are several times more likely to be severely assaulted by their parents or suffer an injury requiring medical attention. Studies indicate that such abusive treatment often involves parents attributing conflict to their child's willfulness or rejection, as well as "coercive family dynamics and conditioned emotional responses".[36] Factors involved in the escalation of ordinary physical punishment by parents into confirmed child abuse may be the punishing parent's inability to control their anger or judge their own strength, and the parent being unaware of the child's physical vulnerabilities.[34]

Children resulting from unintended pregnancies are more likely to be abused or neglected.[146][147] In addition, unintended pregnancies are more likely than intended pregnancies to be associated with abusive relationships,[148] and there is an increased risk of physical violence during pregnancy.[149] They also result in poorer maternal mental health,[149] and lower mother-child relationship quality.[149]

There is some limited evidence that children with moderate or severe disabilities are more likely to be victims of abuse than non-disabled children.[150] A study on child abuse sought to determine: the forms of child abuse perpetrated on children with disabilities; the extent of child abuse; and the causes of child abuse of children with disabilities. A questionnaire on child abuse was adapted and used to collect data in this study. Participants comprised a sample of 31 pupils with disabilities (15 children with vision impairment and 16 children with hearing impairment) selected from special schools in Botswana. The study found that the majority of participants were involved in doing domestic chores. They were also sexually, physically and emotionally abused by their teachers. This study showed that children with disabilities were vulnerable to child abuse in their schools.[151]

Substance use disorder can be a major contributing factor to child abuse. One U.S. study found that parents with documented substance use, most commonly alcohol, cocaine, and heroin, were much more likely to mistreat their children, and were also much more likely to reject court-ordered services and treatments.[152] Another study found that over two-thirds of cases of child maltreatment involved parents with substance use disorders. This study specifically found relationships between alcohol and physical abuse, and between cocaine and sexual abuse.[153] Also, parental stress caused by substance increases the likelihood of the minor exhibiting internalizing and externalizing behaviors.[154] Although the abuse victim does not always realize the abuse is wrong, the internal confusion can lead to chaos. Inner anger turns to outer frustration. Once aged 17/18, drink and drugs are used to numb the hurt feelings, nightmares, and daytime flashbacks. Acquisitive crimes to pay for the chemicals are inevitable if the victim is unable to find employment.[155]

Unemployment and financial difficulties are associated with increased rates of child abuse.[156] In 2009 CBS News reported that child abuse in the United States had increased during the economic recession. It gave the example of a father who had never been the primary care-taker of the children. Now that the father was in that role, the children began to come in with injuries.[157] Parental mental health has also been seen as a factor towards child maltreatment.[158] According to a recent Children's HealthWatch study, mothers with positive symptoms of depression display a greater rate of food insecurity, poor health care for their children, and greater number of hospitalizations.[159]

The American psychoanalyst Elisabeth Young-Bruehl maintains that harm to children is justified and made acceptable by widely held beliefs in children's inherent subservience to adults, resulting in a largely unacknowledged prejudice against children she terms childism. She contends that such prejudice, while not the immediate cause of child maltreatment, must be investigated in order to understand the motivations behind a given act of abuse, as well as to shed light on societal failures to support children's needs and development in general.[17]: 4–6  Founding editor of the International Journal of Children's Rights, Michael Freeman, also argues that the ultimate causes of child abuse lie in prejudice against children, especially the view that human rights do not apply equally to adults and children. He writes, "the roots of child abuse lie not in parental psycho-pathology or in socio-environmental stress (though their influences cannot be discounted) but in a sick culture which denigrates and depersonalizes, which reduces children to property, to sexual objects so that they become the legitimate victims of both adult violence and lust".[160]

Worldwide

edit
Legality of school[161] and general corporal punishment in the United States
  Corporal punishment illegal in schools only
  Corporal punishment not illegal
Legality of corporal punishment of minors in Europe[162]
  Corporal punishment illegal in both schools and the home
  Corporal punishment illegal in schools only
  Corporal punishment legal in schools and in the home

Child abuse is an international public health crisis. Poverty and substance use disorders are common social problems worldwide, and no matter the location, show a similar trend in the correlation to child abuse.[163] Differences in cultural perspectives play a significant role in how children are treated.[164] Laws reflect the population's views on what is acceptable – for example whether child corporal punishment is legal or not.[164]

A study conducted by members from several Baltic and Eastern European countries, together with specialists from the United States, examined the causes of child abuse in the countries of Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia and Moldova. In these countries, respectively, 33%, 42%, 18% and 43% of children reported at least one type of child abuse.[165] According to their findings, there was a series of correlations between the potential risk factors of parental employment status, alcohol abuse, and family size within the abuse ratings.[166] In three of the four countries, parental substance use was considerably correlated with the presence of child abuse, and although it was a lower percentage, still showed a relationship in the fourth country (Moldova).[166] Each country also showed a connection between the father not working outside of the home and either emotional or physical child abuse.[166] After the fall of the communism regime, some positive changes have followed with regard to tackling child abuse. While there is a new openness and acceptance regarding parenting styles and close relationships with children, child abuse has certainly not ceased to exist. While controlling parenting may be less of a concern, financial difficulty, unemployment, and substance use remain dominating factors in child abuse throughout Eastern Europe.[166]

There is some evidence that countries in conflict or transitioning out of conflict have increased rates of child abuse.[141] This increasing prevalence may be secondary to displacement and family disruption, as well as trauma.[141]

Asian parenting perspectives hold different ideals from American culture. Many have described their traditions as including physical and emotional closeness that ensures a lifelong bond between parent and child, as well as establishing parental authority and child obedience through harsh discipline.[167] Balancing disciplinary responsibilities within parenting is common in many Asian cultures, including China, Japan, Singapore, Vietnam and Korea.[167] To some cultures, forceful parenting may be seen as abuse, but in other societies such as these, the use of force is looked at as a reflection of parental devotion.[167]

These cultural differences can be studied from many perspectives. Most importantly, overall parental behavior is genuinely different in various countries. Each culture has their own "range of acceptability", and what one may view as offensive, others may seem as tolerable. Behaviors that are normal to some may be viewed as abusive to others, all depending on the societal norms of that particular country.[166] The differences in these cultural beliefs demonstrate the importance of examining all cross-cultural perspectives when studying the concept of child abuse. Some professionals argue that cultural norms that sanction physical punishment are one of the causes of child abuse, and have undertaken campaigns to redefine such norms.[168][169][170]

In April 2015, public broadcasting reported that the rate of child abuse in South Korea had increased to 13% compared with the previous year, and 75% of attackers were the children's own parents.[171]

edit

There are studies providing evidence of a link between child abuse and cruelty to animals. A large national survey by the Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies found a "substantial overlap between companion animal abuse and child abuse" and that cruelty to animals "most frequently co-occurred with psychological abuse and less severe forms of physical child abuse," which "resonates with conceptualizations of domestic abuse as an ongoing pattern of psychological abuse and coercive control."[172]

Investigation

edit

Suspicion for physical abuse is recommended when injuries occur in a child who is not yet able to walk independently.[173] Additionally, having multiple injuries that are in different stages of healing and having injuries in unusual location, such as the torso, ears, face, or neck, may prompt evaluation for child abuse.[173] Medical professionals may also become suspicious of child abuse when a caregiver is not able to provide an explanation for an injury that is consistent with the type or severity of the injury.[174]

In many jurisdictions, suspected abuse, even if not necessarily proven, requires reporting to child protection agencies, such as the Child Protection Services in the United States. Recommendations for healthcare workers, such as primary care providers and nurses, who are often suited to encounter suspected abuse are advised to firstly determine the child's immediate need for safety. A private environment away from suspected abusers is desired for interviewing and examining. Leading statements that can distort the story are avoided. As disclosing abuse can be distressing and sometimes even shameful, reassuring the child that he or she has done the right thing by telling and that they are not bad or that the abuse was not their fault helps in disclosing more information. Dolls are sometimes used to help explain what happened. In Mexico, psychologists trial using cartoons to speak to children who may be more likely to disclose information than to an adult stranger.[175] For the suspected abusers, it is also recommended to use a nonjudgmental, nonthreatening attitude towards them and to withhold expressing shock, in order to help disclose information.[176]

A key part of child abuse work is assessment. A few methods of assessment include Projective tests, clinical interviews, and behavioral observations.[177]

  • Projective tests allow for the child to express themselves through drawings, stories, or even descriptions in order to get help establish an initial understanding of the abuse that took place
  • Clinical interviews are comprehensive interviews performed by professionals to analyze the mental state of the one being interviewed[178]
  • Behavioral observation gives an insight into things that trigger a child's memory of the abuse through observation of the child's behavior when interacting with other adults or children

A particular challenge arises where child protection professionals are assessing families where neglect is occurring. Neglect is a complex phenomenon without a universally-accepted definition[179] and professionals cite difficulty in knowing which questions to ask to identify neglect.[180] Younger children, children living in poverty, and children with more siblings are at increased risk of neglect.[181]

Prevention

edit

A support-group structure is needed to reinforce parenting skills and closely monitor the child's well-being. Visiting home nurse or social-worker visits are also required to observe and evaluate the progress of the child and the caretaking situation. The support-group structure and visiting home nurse or social-worker visits are not mutually exclusive. Many studies have demonstrated that the two measures must be coupled together for the best possible outcome.[182] Studies show that if health and medical care personnel in a structured way ask parents about important psychosocial risk factors in connection with visiting pediatric primary care and, if necessary, offering the parent help may help prevent child maltreatment.[183][184]

Children's school programs regarding "good touch ... bad touch" can provide children with a forum in which to role-play and learn to avoid potentially harmful scenarios. Pediatricians can help identify children at risk of maltreatment and intervene with the aid of a social worker or provide access to treatment that addresses potential risk factors such as maternal depression.[185] Videoconferencing has also been used to diagnose child abuse in remote emergency departments and clinics.[186] Unintended conception increases the risk of subsequent child abuse, and large family size increases the risk of child neglect.[147] Thus, a comprehensive study for the National Academy of Sciences concluded that affordable contraceptive services should form the basis for child abuse prevention.[147][187] "The starting point for effective child abuse programming is pregnancy planning," according to an analysis for US Surgeon General C. Everett Koop.[147][188]

Findings from research published in 2016 support the importance of family relationships in the trajectory of a child's life: family-targeted interventions are important for improving long-term health, particularly in communities that are socioeconomically disadvantaged.[189]

Resources for child-protection services are sometimes limited. According to Hosin (2007), "a considerable number of traumatized abused children do not gain access to protective child-protection strategies."[where?][190] Briere (1992) argues that only when "lower-level violence" of children[clarification needed] ceases to be culturally tolerated will there be changes in the victimization and police protection of children.[191]

United States

edit

Child sexual abuse prevention programs were developed in the United States of America during the 1970s and originally delivered to children. Programmes delivered to parents were developed in the 1980s and took the form of one-off meetings, two to three hours long.[192][193][194][195][196][197] In the last 15 years, web-based programmes have been developed.

Since 1983, April has been designated Child Abuse Prevention Month in the United States.[198] U.S. President Barack Obama continued that tradition by declaring April 2009 Child Abuse Prevention Month.[199] One way the Federal government of the United States provides funding for child-abuse prevention is through Community-Based Grants for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (CBCAP).[200]

An investigation by The Boston Globe and ProPublica published in 2019[201] found that the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico were all out of compliance with the requirements of the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, and that underfunding of child welfare agencies and substandard procedures in some states caused failures to prevent avoidable child injuries and deaths.

A number of policies and programs have been put in place in the U.S. to try to better understand and to prevent child abuse fatalities, including: safe-haven laws, child fatality review teams, training for investigators, shaken baby syndrome prevention programs, and child abuse death laws which mandate harsher sentencing for taking the life of a child.[202]

Treatments

edit

A number of treatments are available to victims of child abuse.[203] However, children who experience childhood trauma do not heal from abuse easily.[204] Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy, first developed to treat sexually abused children, is now used for victims of any kind of trauma.[203] It targets trauma-related symptoms in children including PTSD, clinical depression and anxiety. It also includes a component for non-offending parents. Several studies have found that sexually abused children undergoing TF-CBT improved more than children undergoing certain other therapies. Data on the effects of TF-CBT for children who experienced non-sexual abuse was not available as of 2006.[203] The purpose of dealing with the thoughts and feelings associated with the trauma is to deal with nightmares, flashbacks and other intrusive experiences that might be spontaneously brought on by any number of discriminative stimuli in the environment or in the individual's brain. This would aid the individual in becoming less fearful of specific stimuli that would arouse debilitating fear, anger, sadness or other negative emotion. In other words, the individual would have some control or mastery over those emotions.[77]

Rational Cognitive Emotive Behavior Therapy is another available treatment and is intended to provide abused children and their adoptive parents with positive behavior change, corrective interpersonal skills, and greater control over themselves and their relationships.[77]

Parent–child interaction therapy was designed to improve the child-parent relationship following the experience of domestic violence. It targets trauma-related symptoms in infants, toddlers, and preschoolers, including PTSD, aggression, defiance, and anxiety. It is supported by two studies of one sample.[203]

School-based programs have also been developed to treat children who are survivors of abuse.[205] This approach teaches children, parents, teachers, and other school staff how to identify the signs of child maltreatment as well as skills that can be helpful in preventing child maltreatment.[206]

Other forms of treatment include group therapy, play therapy, and art therapy. Each of these types of treatment can be used to better assist the client, depending on the form of abuse they have experienced. Play therapy and art therapy are ways to get children more comfortable with therapy by working on something that they enjoy (coloring, drawing, painting, etc.). The design of a child's artwork can be a symbolic representation of what they are feeling, relationships with friends or family, and more. Being able to discuss and analyze a child's artwork can allow a professional to get a better insight of the child.[207]

Interventions targeting the offending parents are rare. Parenting training can prevent child abuse in the short term, and help children with a range of emotional, conduct and behavioral challenges, but there is insufficient evidence about whether it has impact on parents who already abuse their children.[208] Abuse-focused cognitive behavioral therapy may target offending parents, but most interventions exclusively target victims and non-offending parents.[203]

Prevalence

edit

Child abuse is complex and difficult to study. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), estimates of the rates of child maltreatment vary widely by country, depending on how child maltreatment is defined, the type of maltreatment studied, the scope and quality of data gathered, and the scope and quality of surveys that ask for self-reports from victims, parents, and caregivers. Despite these limitations, international studies show that a quarter of all adults report experiencing physical abuse as children, and that 1 in 5 women and 1 in 13 men report experiencing childhood sexual abuse. Emotional abuse and neglect are also common childhood experiences.[209]

As of 2014, an estimated 41,000 children under 15 are victims of homicide each year. The WHO states that this number underestimates the true extent of child homicide; a significant proportion of child deaths caused by maltreatment are incorrectly attributed to unrelated factors such as falls, burns, and drowning. Also, girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual violence, exploitation and abuse in situations of armed conflict and refugee settings, whether by combatants, security forces, community members, aid workers, or others.[209]

United States

edit

The National Research Council wrote in 1993 that "...the available evidence suggests that child abuse and neglect is an important, prevalent problem in the United States [...] Child abuse and neglect are particularly important compared with other critical childhood problems because they are often directly associated with adverse physical and mental health consequences in children and families".[210]: 6 

In 1995, a one-off judicial decision found that parents failing to sufficiently speak the national standard language at home to their children was a form of child abuse by a judge in a child custody matter.[211]

In 1998, Douglas Besharov, the first Director of the U.S. Center on Child Abuse and Neglect, stated "the existing laws are often vague and overly broad"[212] and there was a "lack of consensus among professionals and Child Protective Services (CPS), personnel about what the terms abuse and neglect mean".[213]

In 2012, Child Protective Services (CPS) agencies estimated that about 9 out of 1000 children in the United States were victims of child maltreatment. Most (78%) were victims of neglect. Physical abuse, sexual abuse, and other types of maltreatment, were less common, making up 18%, 9%, and 11% of cases, respectively ("other types" included emotional abuse, parental substance use, and inadequate supervision). According to data reported by the Children's Bureau of the US Department of Health and Human Services, more than 3.5 million allegations of child abuse were looked into by child protective services who in turn confirmed 674,000 of those cases in 2017.[214] However, CPS reports may underestimate the true scope of child maltreatment. A non-CPS study estimated that one in four children experience some form of maltreatment in their lifetimes, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).[215]

In February 2017, the American Public Health Association published a Washington University study estimating 37% of American children experienced a child protective services investigation by age 18 (or 53% if African American).[216]

According to David Finkelhor who tracked Child Maltreatment Report (NCANDS) data from 1990 to 2010, sexual abuse had declined 62% from 1992 to 2009 and the long-term trend for physical abuse was also down by 56% since 1992. He stated: "It is unfortunate that information about the trends in child maltreatment are not better publicized and more widely known. The long-term decline in sexual and physical abuse may have important implications for public policy."[217]

A child abuse fatality occurs when a child's death is the result of abuse or neglect, or when abuse or neglect are contributing factors to a child's death. In 2008, 1,730 children died in the United States due to factors related to abuse; this is a rate of 2 per 100,000 U.S. children.[218] Family situations which place children at risk include moving, unemployment, and having non-family members living in the household. A number of policies and programs have been put in place in the U.S. to try to better understand and to prevent child abuse fatalities, including: safe-haven laws, child fatality review teams, training for investigators, shaken baby syndrome prevention programs, and child abuse death laws which mandate harsher sentencing for taking the life of a child.[202]

In a year-long period between 2019 and 2020, approximately 8.4 out of every 1,000 children were abused or neglected, a number equating to 618,000 children. 77.2% of the perpetrators were parents, the majority of which were one parent acting alone. 37.6% of child abuse was perpetrated by mothers acting alone, and 23.6% was perpetrated by fathers acting alone. 20.7% of child abuse was committed by both parents.[219]

Examples

edit

Child labor

edit
 
A child soldier in El Salvador, 1990

Child trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of children for the purpose of exploitation.[220] Children are trafficked for purposes such as of commercial sexual exploitation, bonded labour, camel jockeying, child domestic labour, drug couriering, child soldiering, illegal adoptions, and begging.[221][222][223] It is difficult to obtain reliable estimates concerning the number of children trafficked each year, primarily due to the covert and criminal nature of the practice.[224][225] The International Labour Organization estimates that 1.2 million children are trafficked each year.[226]

Child labor refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful.[227] The International Labour Organization considers such labor to be a form of exploitation and abuse of children.[228][229] Child labor refers to those occupations which infringe the development of children (due to the nature of the job or lack of appropriate regulation) and does not include age appropriate and properly supervised jobs in which minors may participate. According to ILO, globally, around 215 million children work, many full-time. Many of these children do not go to school, do not receive proper nutrition or care, and have little or no time to play. More than half of them are exposed to the worst forms of child labor, such as child prostitution, drug trafficking, armed conflicts and other hazardous environments.[230] There exist several international instruments protecting children from child labor, including the Minimum Age Convention, 1973 and the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention.

More girls under 16 work as domestic workers than any other category of child labor, often sent to cities by parents living in rural poverty[231] such as in restaveks in Haiti.

Forced adoption

edit

Children in poverty have been removed from their families with their welfare being used an argument to do so. The European Court of Human Rights ruled that Norway, which disproportionately removes children of immigrant background and argues it gives them a better future, was mistaking poverty for neglect and that there are other ways to help destitute children.[232][233] In Switzerland, between the 1850s and the mid-20th century, hundreds of thousands of children mostly from poor or single parents were forcefully removed from their parents by the authorities, and sent to work on farms, living with new families. They were known as contract children or Verdingkinder.[234][235][236][237]

Removing children of ethnic minorities from their families to be adopted by those of the dominant ethnic group has been used as a method of forced assimilation. The Stolen Generations in Australia involved Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children.[238][239] In Canada, the Canadian Indian residential school system involved First Nations, Métis and Inuit children, who often suffered severe abuse.[240][241][242][243][244] As part of the persecution of Uyghurs in China, in 2017 alone at least half a million children were also forcefully separated from their families, and placed in pre-school camps with prison-style surveillance systems and 10,000 volt electric fences.[245]

Child harvesting

edit

It is speculated that, for-profit orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families usually take in children whose parents have died and it would be cheaper to aid close relatives who want to take in the orphans. Experts maintain that separating children from their families often harm children's development.[246] Adoption fees result in such orphanages and similar networks such as "baby factories" in Nigeria coercing or abducting and raping women to sell their babies for adoption.[247][248] During the One Child Policy in China, when women were only allowed to have one child, local governments would often allow the woman to give birth and then they would take the baby away. Child traffickers, often paid by the government, would sell the children to orphanages that would arrange international adoptions worth tens of thousands of dollars, turning a profit for the government.[249]

Infanticide

edit

Under natural conditions, mortality rates for girls under five are slightly lower than boys for biological reasons. However, after birth, neglect and diverting resources to male children can lead to some countries having a skewed ratio with more boys than girls, with such practices killing an approximate 230,000 girls under five in India each year.[250] While sex-selective abortion is more common among the higher income population, who can access medical technology, abuse after birth, such as infanticide and abandonment, is more common among the lower income population.[251] Baby farming is practice of accepting custody of a child in exchange for payment. As it became profitable, baby 'farmers' would neglect or murder the babies to keep costs down. Illegitimacy and its attendant social stigma were usually the impetus for a mother's decision to give her child to a baby farmer. Methods proposed to deal with the issue are baby hatches to drop off unwanted babies and safe-haven laws, which decriminalize abandoning babies unharmed.[252]

Body modification

edit
 
FGM in Africa, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen, as of 2015 (map of Africa)[253]

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons."[254] It is practiced mainly in 28 countries in Africa, and in parts of Asia and the Middle East.[255][256] FGM is mostly found in a geographical area ranging across Africa, from east to west – from Somalia to Senegal, and from north to south – from Egypt to Tanzania.[257] FGM is most often carried out on young girls aged between infancy and 15 years.[254] FGM is classified into four types, of which type 3 – infibulation – is the most extreme form.[254] The consequences of FGM include physical, emotional and sexual problems, and include serious risks during childbirth.[258][259] The countries which choose to ratify the Istanbul Convention, the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women and domestic violence,[260] are bound by its provisions to ensure that FGM is criminalized.[261] Labia stretching is the act of lengthening the labia minora and may be initiated in girls from ages 8 to 14 years.[262]

The practice of using hot stones or other implements to flatten the breast tissue of pubescent girls is widespread in Cameroon[263] and exists elsewhere in West Africa as well. It is believed to have come with that diaspora to Britain,[264] where the government declared it a form of child abuse and said that it could be prosecuted under existing assault laws.[265]

Sexual rites of passage

edit

A tradition often performed in some regions in Africa involves a man initiating a girl into womanhood by having sex with her, usually after her first period, in a practice known as "sexual cleansing". The rite can last for three days and there is an increased risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections as the ritual requires condoms not be worn.[266]

Violence against girl students

edit
 
Attacks on schoolgirls in Afghanistan are common

In some parts of the world, girls are strongly discouraged from attending school.[267] They are sometimes attacked by members of the community if they do so.[268][269][270][271] In parts of South Asia, girls schools are set on fire by vigilante groups.[272][273] Such attacks are common in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Notable examples include the kidnapping of hundreds of female students in Chibok in 2014 and Dapchi in 2018.

Child marriage

edit

A child marriage is a marriage in which one or both participants are minors, often before the age of puberty. Child marriages are common in many parts of the world, especially in parts of Asia and Africa. The United Nations considers those below the age of 18 years to be incapable of giving valid consent to marriage and therefore regards such marriages as a form of forced marriage; and that marriages under the age of majority have significant potential to constitute a form of child abuse.[274] In many countries, such practices are lawful or – even where laws prohibit child marriage – often unenforced.[275] India has more child brides than any other nation, with 40% of the world total.[276] The countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger (75%), Central African Republic and Chad (68%), and Bangladesh (66%).[277]

 
Bride kidnapping is practiced in Central Asia.

Bride kidnapping, also known as marriage by abduction or marriage by capture, has been practiced around the world and throughout history, and sometimes involves minors. It is still practiced in parts of Central Asia, the Caucasus region, and some African countries. In Ethiopia, marriage by abduction is widespread, and many young girls are kidnapped this way.[278] In most countries, bride kidnapping is considered a criminal offense rather than a valid form of marriage.[279] In many cases, the groom also rapes his kidnapped bride, in order to prevent her from returning to her family due to shame.[280]

Money marriage refers to a marriage where a girl, usually, is married off to a man to settle debts owed by her parents.[281][282] The female is referred to as a "money wife"[283]

Sacred prostitution often involves girls being pledged to priests or those of higher castes, such as fetish slaves in West Africa.

Violence against children with superstitious accusations

edit

Customary beliefs in witchcraft are common in many parts of the world, even among the educated. Anthropologists have argued that those with disabilities are often viewed as bad omens as raising a child with a disability in such communities are an insurmountable hurdle.[284] For example, in southern Ethiopia, children with physical abnormalities are considered to be ritually impure or mingi, the latter are believed to exert an evil influence upon others, so disabled infants have traditionally been disposed of without a proper burial.[285] A 2010 UNICEF report notes that accusations against children are a recent phenomenon with women and the elderly usually being accused 10–20 years ago. Greater urbanization and the growing economic burden of raising children is attributed as a factor.[286][287] As of 2006, between 25,000 and 50,000 children in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, had been accused of witchcraft and abandoned.[288] In Malawi it is common practice to accuse children of witchcraft and many children have been abandoned, abused and even killed as a result.[289] In the Nigerian, Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State about 15,000 children were branded as witches.[290] This practice is also found in communities in the Amazon. Children who are specifically at risk include orphans, street-children, albinos, disabled children, children who are unusually gifted, children who were born prematurely or in unusual positions, twins,[291] children of single mothers and children who express gender identity issues[284] and can involve children as young as eight.[286] Consequently, those accused of being a witch are ostracized and subjected to punishment, torture and even murdered,[292][293] often by being buried alive or left to starve.[284] Reports by UNICEF, UNHCR, Save The Children and Human Rights Watch have highlighted the violence and abuse towards children accused of witchcraft in Africa.[294][295][296][297]

Ethics

edit

One of the most challenging ethical dilemmas arising from child abuse relates to the parental rights of abusive parents or caretakers with regard to their children, particularly in medical settings.[298] In the United States, the 2008 New Hampshire case of Andrew Bedner drew attention to this legal and moral conundrum. Bedner, accused of severely injuring his infant daughter, sued for the right to determine whether or not she remain on life support; keeping her alive, which would have prevented a murder charge, created a motive for Bedner to act that conflicted with the apparent interests of his child.[298][299][300] Bioethicists Jacob M. Appel and Thaddeus Mason Pope recently argued, in separate articles, that such cases justify the replacement of the accused parent with an alternative decision-maker.[298][301]

Child abuse also poses ethical concerns related to confidentiality, as victims may be physically or psychologically unable to report abuse to authorities. Accordingly, many jurisdictions and professional bodies have made exceptions to standard requirements for confidentiality and legal privileges in instances of child abuse. Medical professionals, including doctors, therapists, and other mental health workers typically owe a duty of confidentiality to their patients and clients, either by law or the standards of professional ethics, and cannot disclose personal information without the consent of the individual concerned. This duty conflicts with an ethical obligation to protect children from preventable harm. Accordingly, confidentiality is often waived when these professionals have a good faith suspicion that child abuse or neglect has occurred or is likely to occur and make a report to local child protection authorities. This exception allows professionals to breach confidentiality and make a report even when children or their parents or guardians have specifically instructed to the contrary. Child abuse is also a common exception to physician–patient privilege: a medical professional may be called upon to testify in court as to otherwise privileged evidence about suspected child abuse despite the wishes of children or their families.[302] Some child abuse policies in Western countries have been criticized both by some conservatives, who claim such policies unduly interfere in the privacy of the family, and by some feminists of the left wing, who claim such policies disproportionally target and punish disadvantaged women who are often themselves in vulnerable positions.[303] There has also been concern that ethnic minority families are disproportionally targeted.[304][305]

Legislation

edit

Canada

edit

Laws and legislation against child abuse are enacted on the provincial and Federal Territories level. Investigations into child abuse are handled by Provincial and Territorial Authorities through government social service departments and enforcement is through local police and courts.[306]

Germany

edit

In Germany, the abuse of vulnerable persons (including children) is punishable according to the German Criminal code § 225 with a from 6 months to 10 years, in aggravated cases at least 1 year (to 15 years pursuant to § 38). If the case is only an attempt, the penalty can be lower (§ 23). However, crimes against children must be prosecuted within 10 years (in aggravated cases 20 years) of the victims reaching 30 years of age (§ 78b and § 78).[307]

As of 2020, Germany and the Netherlands are 2 out of all 27 EU countries that do not have any reporting obligations for civilians or professionals. There is no mandatory reporting law, which would grant reporters of child abuse anonymity and immunity.[308]

United States

edit

In the 1960s, mandatory reporting in the United States was introduced and had been adopted in some form by all 50 states by 1970.[309][310]: 3  In 1974, the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) was introduced and began an upswing in reported child sexual abuse cases which lasted until the 1990s.[311] The Child Abuse Victims Rights Act of 1986 gave victims of child abuse the ability to file lawsuits against abuse perpetrators and their employers after the statute of limitations had expired.[311] The Victims of Child Abuse Act of 1990 further gave victims of abuse capacity to press charges by permitting the court to assign lawyers to advise, act in the best interest of, and elevate the voices of child victims of abuse.[312] The Adoption and Safe Families Act (1997) followed, shifting emphasis away from court-sanctioned reunification of families to giving parents or guardians time-bound opportunities for rehabilitation prior to making long term plans for children.[313] Child Abuse Reform and Enforcement Act was enacted in 2000 to further reduce the incidence of child abuse and neglect.

Shifting legislative focus more heavily towards sexual abuse and exploitation of children, Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act was passed in 2006 to increase penalties and registration for child sexual abuse, exploitation, and transportation crimes. top Exploitation Through Trafficking Act passed in 2013 aimed at preventing the prosecution of sexually exploited youth being sex trafficked, redirecting abused and exploited youth from the criminal justice system to the child welfare system.[314][315] This and other laws redirecting victims of child sex trafficking to the child welfare system are known as "Safe Harbor" laws.[315]

As of April 2019, 18 states had legislation requiring that mandated reporters report based on suspicion of child abuse of neglect.[316]

Advocacy organizations

edit

United States

edit

There are organizations at national, state, and county levels in the United States that provide community leadership in preventing child abuse and neglect.

Mary Ellen Wilson, also called Mary Ellen McCormack, was an American whose case of child abuse, the first documented case of child abuse in the United States,[317] led to the creation of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, which was incorporated in 1875.[318][319] It was the world's first child protective agency.[320]

Prevent Child Abuse America,[321] founded in 1976, operates in 46 states to provide child abuse and neglect protection.[322]

Founded in 1985, the National Children's Advocacy Center,[323] along with National Children's Alliance,[324] coordinates efforts and sets standards and policy for child advocacy centers across the US and abroad.

The Children's Trust Fund Alliance,[325] established in 1989, provides funding support to state level child abuse organisations.

Many investigations into child abuse in the US are handled on the local level by 924[324] child advocacy centers, some of which are distributed among 34[323] other countries.

Other organizations focus on specific prevention strategies. The National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome focuses its efforts on the specific issue of preventing child abuse that is manifested as shaken baby syndrome.[326]

NICHD, also known as the National Institute of Child Health & Human Development is an organization that helps victims of child abuse through one of its branches. Through the Child Development and Behavior (CDB) Branch, NICHD raises awareness efforts by supporting research projects to better understand the short- and long-term impacts of child abuse and neglect. They provide programs and observe National Child Abuse Prevention Month every April since 1984.[327] The United States Children's Bureau, a federal agency tasked to improve child abuse protection leads activities for the Month, including the release of updated statistics about child abuse and neglect, candlelight vigils, and fundraisers to support prevention activities and treatment for victims. The Bureau also sponsors a "Blue Ribbon Campaign", in which people wear blue ribbons in memory of children who have died from abuse, or in honor of individuals and organizations that have taken important steps to prevent child abuse and neglect.[327]

Canada

edit

Charitable organizations exist in each province to assist children and families with abuse. Organizations such as the Canadian Red Cross,[328] Kids Help Phone,[329] and Guardians of the Children Canada,[330] are able to direct people to locally available resources.

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ Editorial (1848) Triple infanticide – suicide du meurtrier. Annales Médico-psycholiques 11: 108 only.
  2. ^ Leuret (1837) Suspicion de folie chez une femme reconnue coupable d'avoir, pendant sa grossesse fait des blessures mortelles a deux de ses enfans: affaire R. Annales d'Hygiène Publique et de Médecine Légale 17: 374–400.
  3. ^ Rothamel (1845) Eine Mutter führt durch allmälige Entziehung der Nahrungsmittel den Tod ihres ehelichen Kindes herbei. Henke's Zeitschrift für der Staatsarzneikunde 50: 139–156.
  4. ^ Boys-de-Loury, Devergie, Ollivier (1843) Consultation medico-légale sur un cas de mort violente, chez un enfant de deux ans et demi. Annales d'Hygiène Publique et de Médecine Légale 29: 185–203.
  5. ^ Tardieu A (1860) Étude médico-légale sur les sévices et mauvais traitements exercés sur des enfants. Annales d'Hygiène 15: 361–398.
  6. ^ Brockington I F (1996) Motherhood and Mental Health. Oxford, Oxford University Press, page 396 – translation of a passage in Tardieu (1860).
  7. ^ Boileau de Castélnau P (1861) Misopédie ou lesion de l'amour de la progéniture. Annales Médico-psychologiques 3rd series 7: 553–568.
  8. ^ Aubry P (1891) De l'Homicide Commis par la Femme. Paris, Storck, pp 1–38.
  9. ^ Delcasse A (1885) Étude medico-légale sur les sévices de l'enfance. Thèse, Paris.
  10. ^ Duval P (1892) Des sévices et mauvais traitements. Thèse, Lyon.
  11. ^ Dumas E (1892) Du libéricide ou meurtre des enfants mineurs par leurs parents. Thèse, Lyon.
  12. ^ Sherwood D (1930) Chronic subdural haematoma in infants. American Journal of Diseases of Children 39: 980–1021.
  13. ^ Snedecor S T, Knapp R E, Wilson H B (1935) Traumatic ossifying periostitis of the newborn. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 61: 385–387.
  14. ^ Caffey J (1946) Multiple fractures in long bones of infant suffering from chronic subdural haematoma. American Journal of Roentgenology 56: 163–173.
  15. ^ Woolley P V, Evans W A (1955) Significance of skeletal lesions in infants resembling those of traumatic origin. Journal of the American Medical Association 158: 539–543.
  16. ^ a b c d McCoy, M.L.; Keen, S.M. (2013). "Introduction". Child Abuse and Neglect (2 ed.). New York: Psychology Press. pp. 3–22. ISBN 978-1-84872-529-4. OCLC 863824493. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  17. ^ a b c Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth (2012). Childism: Confronting Prejudice Against Children. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17311-6.
  18. ^ Giovannoni, Jeanne M.; Becerra, Rosina M. (1979). Defining Child Abuse. Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-911750-7.
  19. ^ "The Social Importance of Self Esteem - see page 30". Retrieved 2 April 2024.
  20. ^ Coghill, D.; Bonnar, S.; Duke, S.; Graham, J.; Seth, S. (2009). Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Oxford University Press. p. 412. ISBN 978-0-19-923499-8. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  21. ^ Wise, Deborah (2011). "Child Abuse Assessment". In Hersen, Michel (ed.). Clinician's Handbook of Child Behavioral Assessment. Academic Press. p. 550. ISBN 978-0-08-049067-0. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  22. ^ a b c Leeb, R.T.; Paulozzi, L.J.; Melanson, C.; Simon, T.R.; Arias, I. (January 2008). Child Maltreatment Surveillance: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements, Version 1.0 (PDF). Atlanta, Georgia: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2017.
  23. ^ a b Conley, Amy (2010). "2. Social Development, Social Investment, and Child Welfare". In Midgley, James; Conley, Amy (eds.). Social Work and Social Development: Theories and Skills for Developmental Social Work. Oxford University Press. pp. 53–55. ISBN 978-0-19-045350-3. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  24. ^ Bonnie S. Fisher; Steven P. Lab, eds. (2010). Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention. SAGE Publications. pp. 86–92. ISBN 978-1-4522-6637-4. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  25. ^ a b "What is Child Abuse and Neglect?". Australian Institute of Family Studies. September 2015. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015.
  26. ^ Mehnaz, Aisha (2013). "Child Neglect: Wider Dimensions". In RN Srivastava; Rajeev Seth; Joan van Niekerk (eds.). Child Abuse and Neglect: Challenges and Opportunities. JP Medical Ltd. p. 101. ISBN 978-93-5090-449-7. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Many do not consider neglect a kind of abuse especially in a condition where the parents are involved as it is often considered unintentional and arise from a lack of knowledge or awareness. This may be true in certain circumstances and often it results in insurmountable problem being faced by the parents.
  27. ^ a b Friedman, E; Billick, SB (June 2015). "Unintentional child neglect: literature review and observational study". Psychiatric Quarterly. 86 (2): 253–9. doi:10.1007/s11126-014-9328-0. ISSN 0033-2720. PMID 25398462. S2CID 9090210. [T]he issue of child neglect is still not well understood, partially because child neglect does not have a consistent, universally accepted definition. Some researchers consider child neglect and child abuse to be one in the same [sic], while other researchers consider them to be conceptually different. Factors that make child neglect difficult to define include: (1) Cultural differences; motives must be taken into account because parents may believe they are acting in the child's best interests based on cultural beliefs (2) the fact that the effect of child abuse is not always immediately visible; the effects of emotional neglect specifically may not be apparent until later in the child's development, and (3) the large spectrum of actions that fall under the category of child abuse.
  28. ^ "Child abuse and neglect by parents and other caregivers" (PDF). World Health Organization. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  29. ^ "Violence against children". www.who.int. Retrieved 10 March 2021.
  30. ^ Herrenkohl RC (2005). "The definition of child maltreatment: from case study to construct". Child Abuse and Neglect. 29 (5): 413–24. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.04.002. PMID 15970317.
  31. ^ "Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect in Federal Law". childwelfare.gov. Children's Bureau, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2016.
  32. ^ a b c d e World Health Organization and International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (2006). "1. The nature and consequences of child maltreatment" (PDF). Preventing child maltreatment: a guide to taking action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland. ISBN 978-92-4-159436-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  33. ^ Noh Anh, Helen (1994). "Cultural Diversity and the Definition of Child Abuse", in Barth, R.P. et al., Child Welfare Research Review, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 28. ISBN 0-231-08074-3
  34. ^ a b "Corporal Punishment" Archived 31 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 2008.
  35. ^ Saunders, Bernadette; Goddard, Chris (2010). Physical Punishment in Childhood: The Rights of the Child. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-470-72706-5.
  36. ^ a b Durrant, Joan; Ensom, Ron (4 September 2012). "Physical punishment of children: lessons from 20 years of research". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 184 (12): 1373–1377. doi:10.1503/cmaj.101314. PMC 3447048. PMID 22311946.
  37. ^ Pinheiro, Paulo Sérgio (2006). "Violence against children in the home and family" (PDF). World Report on Violence Against Children. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Secretary-General's Study on Violence Against Children. ISBN 978-92-95057-51-7. Archived from the original on 11 January 2016.
  38. ^ Coleman D, Dodge L, Campbell KA, Keeton S (1 April 2010). Where and How to Draw the Line Between Reasonable Corporal Punishment and Abuse. Duke University School of Law. OCLC 854519105.
  39. ^ a b c d Theoklitou D, Kabitsis N, Kabitsi A (2012). "Physical and emotional abuse of primary school children by teachers". Child Abuse Negl. 36 (1): 64–70. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.05.007. PMID 22197151.
  40. ^ "Alice Miller – Child Abuse and Mistreatment". Archived from the original on 9 January 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  41. ^ "Effects of child abuse and neglect for adult survivors". 16 June 2014. Archived from the original on 10 November 2016. Retrieved 19 December 2016.
  42. ^ Hibbard, Roberta A.; Sanders, Brian J. (2011). "Child Abuse and Neglect". McDonald and Avery Dentistry for the Child and Adolescent (Ninth ed.). Elsevier. pp. 19–26. doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-05724-0.50006-0. ISBN 978-0-323-05724-0.
  43. ^ "Battered Child Syndrome: Investigating Physical Abuse and Homicid. Portable Guides to Investigating Child Abuse" (PDF). Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  44. ^ a b Kempe, C. Henry (7 July 1962). "The Battered-Child Syndrome". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 181 (1). American Medical Association (AMA): 17–24. doi:10.1001/jama.1962.03050270019004. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 14455086.
  45. ^ Levesque, Roger J. R. (2011). "Battered Child Syndrome". Encyclopedia of Adolescence. New York, NY: Springer New York. p. 252. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1695-2_511. ISBN 978-1-4419-1694-5.
  46. ^ a b c Duhaime, Ann-Christine; Christian, Cindy W. (2023). "Inflicted Trauma (Child Abuse)". In Winn, H. Richard (ed.). Youmans & Winn Neurological Surgery (Eighth ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. pp. 1895–1896. ISBN 978-0-323-66192-8. OCLC 1300711519.
  47. ^ a b "Child Sexual Abuse". Medline Plus. U.S. National Library of Medicine. 2 April 2008. Archived from the original on 5 December 2013.
  48. ^ "Guidelines for psychological evaluations in child protection matters. Committee on Professional Practice and Standards, APA Board of Professional Affairs". The American Psychologist. 54 (8): 586–93. August 1999. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.8.586. PMID 10453704. Abuse, sexual (child): generally defined as contacts between a child and an adult or other person significantly older or in a position of power or control over the child, where the child is being used for sexual stimulation of the adult or other person.
  49. ^ Martin J, Anderson J, Romans S, Mullen P, O'Shea M (1993). "Asking about child sexual abuse: methodological implications of a two stage survey". Child Abuse & Neglect. 17 (3): 383–92. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(93)90061-9. PMID 8330225.
  50. ^ NSPCC. "Search". NSPCC. Archived from the original on 13 February 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  51. ^ Brown, Patricia Leigh (23 May 2011). "In Oakland, Redefining Sex Trade Workers as Abuse Victims". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 May 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2011. Once viewed as criminals and dispatched to juvenile centers, where treatment was rare, sexually exploited youths are increasingly seen as victims of child abuse, with a new focus on early intervention and counseling.
  52. ^ Roosa MW, Reinholtz C, Angelini PJ (1999). "The relation of child sexual abuse and depression in young women: comparisons across four ethnic groups". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 27 (1): 65–76. PMID 10197407. Archived from the original on 14 December 2004.
  53. ^ Widom CS (1999). "Post-traumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up". American Journal of Psychiatry. 156 (8): 1223–1229. doi:10.1176/ajp.156.8.1223. PMID 10450264. S2CID 7339542.
  54. ^ Levitan R. D.; Rector N. A.; Sheldon T.; Goering P. (2003). "Childhood adversities associated with major depression and/or anxiety disorders in a community sample of Ontario: Issues of co-morbidity and specificity". Depression and Anxiety. 17 (1): 34–42. doi:10.1002/da.10077. PMID 12577276. S2CID 26031006.
  55. ^ a b Coons, Philip M. (August 1994). "Confirmation of Childhood Abuse in Child and Adolescent Cases of Multiple Personality Disorder and Dissociative Disorder Not Otherwise Specified". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 182 (8): 461–4. doi:10.1097/00005053-199408000-00007. PMID 8040657. S2CID 34417803.
  56. ^ Messman-Moore, T. L.; Long, P. J. (2000). "Child Sexual Abuse and Revictimization in the Form of Adult Sexual Abuse, Adult Physical Abuse, and Adult Psychological Maltreatment". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 15 (5): 489–502. doi:10.1177/088626000015005003. S2CID 145761598.
  57. ^ Hornor, G (2010). "Child sexual abuse: consequences and implications". Journal of Pediatric Health Care. 24 (6): 358–364. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2009.07.003. PMID 20971410.
  58. ^ Dinwiddie S, Heath AC, Dunne MP, Bucholz KK, Madden PA, Slutske WS, Bierut LJ, Statham DB, Martin NG (2000). "Early sexual abuse and lifetime psychopathology: a co-twin-control study". Psychological Medicine. 30 (1): 41–52. doi:10.1017/S0033291799001373. PMID 10722174. S2CID 15270464.
  59. ^ a b Thornton, Clifton P.; Veenema, Tener Goodwin (2015). "Children seeking refuge: A review of the escalating humanitarian crisis of child sexual abuse and HIV/AIDS in Latin America". Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care. 26 (4): 432–442. doi:10.1016/j.jana.2015.01.002. PMID 25769757. S2CID 31814720.
  60. ^ a b Whealin, Julia (23 February 2016). "Child Sexual Abuse". National Center for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, US Department of Veterans Affairs. Archived from the original on 8 December 2016.
  61. ^ Finkelhor D (1994). "Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse" (PDF). The Future of Children. 4 (2): 31–53. doi:10.2307/1602522. JSTOR 1602522. PMID 7804768. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2008.
  62. ^ Gorey KM, Leslie DR (April 1997). "The prevalence of child sexual abuse: integrative review adjustment for potential response and measurement biases". Child Abuse & Neglect. 21 (4): 391–8. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.465.1057. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(96)00180-9. PMID 9134267.
  63. ^ Finkelhor, David; Richard Ormrod; Mark Chaffin (2009). "Juveniles Who Commit Sex Offenses Against Minors" (PDF). Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Office of Justice Programs, Department of Justice. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2010. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
  64. ^ "India's hidden incest". BBC News. 22 January 1999. Archived from the original on 8 May 2013.
  65. ^ John E. B. Myers (2011). The APSAC Handbook on Child Maltreatment. SAGE Publications Inc. pp. 126–130. ISBN 978-1-4129-6681-8.
  66. ^ Donald Black (1 February 2014). DSM-5® Guidebook: The Essential Companion to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 423. ISBN 978-1-58562-465-2.
  67. ^ "Child Abuse Laws State-by-State". findLaw. Archived from the original on 8 October 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  68. ^ a b "Child Abuse". The National Center for Victims of Crime. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011.
  69. ^ Kendall-Tackett, Kathleen (2002). "The health effects of childhood abuse: four pathways by which abuse can influence health". Child Abuse & Neglect. 26 (6): 715–729. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00343-5. PMID 12201164.
  70. ^ Rubin, David; Lane, Wendy; Ludwig, Stephen (October 2001). "Child abuse prevention". Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 13 (5): 388–401. doi:10.1097/00008480-200110000-00002. PMID 11801882. S2CID 39961725.
  71. ^ a b "Childhood Psychological Abuse as Harmful as Sexual or Physical Abuse". The American Psychological Association. 8 October 2014. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015.
  72. ^ McGill University. "Different types of child abuse: Similar consequences". Science News. Archived from the original on 18 December 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
  73. ^ Loudenback, Jeremy (25 October 2015). "Is Emotional Abuse as Harmful as Physical and Sexual Abuse?". Chronicle of Social Change. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
  74. ^ "Chronic Neglect" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
  75. ^ "Child Maltreatment 2010: Summary of Key Findings" (PDF). Children's Bureau, Child Welfare Information Gateway, Protecting Children Strengthening Families. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 September 2012.
  76. ^ "Neurocognitive impacts for children of poverty and neglect". Apa.org. July 2012. Archived from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
  77. ^ a b c Golden J.A., Prather W. (2009). "A behavioral perspective of childhood trauma and attachment issues: toward alternative treatment approaches for children with a history of abuse". International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 5 (1): 56–74. doi:10.1037/h0100872. S2CID 45317073.
  78. ^ Cohn Jonathan (2011). ""The Two Year Window." (Cover story)". New Republic. Vol. 242, no. 18. pp. 10–13. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015.
  79. ^ a b Middlebrooks, J.S.; Audage, N.C. (2008). The Effects of Childhood Stress on Health Across the Lifespan (PDF). Atlanta, Georgia (US): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2016.
  80. ^ a b c Dolezal, T.; McCollum, D.; Callahan, M. (2009). Hidden Costs in Health Care: The Economic Impact of Violence and Abuse. Academy on Violence and Abuse.
  81. ^ Angelakis, Ioannis; Gillespie, Emma Louise; Panagioti, Maria (May 2019). "Childhood maltreatment and adult suicidality: a comprehensive systematic review with meta-analysis". Psychological Medicine. 49 (7): 1057–1078. doi:10.1017/S0033291718003823. ISSN 0033-2917. PMC 6498789. PMID 30608046.
  82. ^ Thornberry TP, Henry KL (2013). "Intergenerational continuity in maltreatment". J Abnorm Child Psychol. 41 (4): 555–569. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9697-5. PMC 3640695. PMID 23192742.
  83. ^ Ertem IO, Leventhal JM, Dobbs S (2000). "Intergenerational continuity of child physical abuse: how good is the evidence?". Lancet. 356 (9232): 814–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02656-8. PMID 11022929. S2CID 30069254.
  84. ^ Thornberry TP, Knight KE, Lovegrove PJ (2012). "Does maltreatment beget maltreatment? A systematic review of the intergenerational literature". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 13 (3): 135–52. doi:10.1177/1524838012447697. PMC 4035025. PMID 22673145.
  85. ^ Zhang, Rui; Xie, Ruibo; Ding, Wan; Wang, Xiaoyue; Song, Shengcheng; Li, Weijian (1 July 2022). "Why is my world so dark? Effects of child physical and emotional abuse on child depression: The mediating role of self-compassion and negative automatic thoughts". Child Abuse & Neglect. 129: 105677. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105677. ISSN 0145-2134. PMID 35640351. S2CID 249114910.
  86. ^ McCrory, Eamon; De Brito, Stephane A; Viding, Essi (April 2012). "The link between child abuse and psychopathology: A review of neurobiological and genetic research". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 105 (4): 151–156. doi:10.1258/jrsm.2011.110222. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 3343716. PMID 22532655.
  87. ^ "Emotional Abuse". American Humane Association. Archived from the original on 22 April 2015.
  88. ^ a b c "Emotional abuse: Signs, symptoms and effects". NSPCC. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015.
  89. ^ a b "Reactive attachment disorder". Archived from the original on 11 May 2015.(subscription required)
  90. ^ "Impact of child abuse". Adults Surviving Child Abuse (ASCA). Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
  91. ^ a b "Behind Closed Doors: The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children" (PDF). UNICEF. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
  92. ^ Kemp AM, Dunstan F, Harrison S, Morris S, Mann M, Rolfe K, Datta S, Thomas DP, Sibert JR, Maguire S (2008). "Patterns of skeletal fractures in child abuse: systematic review". BMJ. 337 (oct02 1): a1518. doi:10.1136/bmj.a1518. PMC 2563260. PMID 18832412.
  93. ^ Lee, Joseph Jonathan; Gonzalez-Izquierdo, Arturo; Gilbert, Ruth (31 October 2012). "Risk of Maltreatment-Related Injury: A Cross-Sectional Study of Children under Five Years Old Admitted to Hospital with a Head or Neck Injury or Fracture". PLOS ONE. 7 (10): e46522. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...746522L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046522. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3485294. PMID 23118853.
  94. ^ Hobbs, C. J. (13 May 1989). "ABC of child abuse. Burns and scalds". The BMJ. 298(6683) (6683): 1302–1305. doi:10.1136/bmj.298.6683.1302. PMC 1836519. PMID 2500207.
  95. ^ Morad Y, Wygnansky-Jaffe T, Levin AV (2010). "Retinal haemorrhage in abusive head trauma". Clinical & Experimental Ophthalmology. 38 (5): 514–520. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2010.02291.x. PMID 20584025. S2CID 11422418.
  96. ^ "Shaken Baby Syndrome information page". National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. 14 February 2014. Archived from the original on 29 May 2014.
  97. ^ De Bellis MD, Thomas LA (2003). "Biologic findings of post-traumatic stress disorder and child maltreatment". Curr Psychiatry Rep. 5 (2): 108–17. doi:10.1007/s11920-003-0027-z. PMID 12685990. S2CID 14941891.
  98. ^ a b Raabe FJ, Spengler D (7 August 2013). "Epigenetic risk factors in PTSD and depression". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 4 (80): 80. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00080. PMC 3736070. PMID 23966957.
  99. ^ Bremner, J. Douglas (2007), "Does Stress Damage the Brain?", in Kirmayer, Laurence J; Lemelson, Robert; Barad, Mark (eds.), Understanding Trauma, Cambridge University Press, pp. 118–141, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511500008.010, ISBN 978-0-511-50000-8
  100. ^ a b Davies, D (2011). Child development: A practitioner's guide (3rd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
  101. ^ Watts-English, Tiffany; Fortson, Beverly L.; Gibler, Nicole; Hooper, Stephen R.; De Bellis, Michael D. (2006). "The Psychobiology of Maltreatment in Childhood" (PDF). Journal of Social Issues. 62 (4). Wiley: 717–736. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2006.00484.x. ISSN 0022-4537. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 December 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2014.
  102. ^ Flaherty EG; Thompson R; Litrownik AJ; et al. (December 2006). "Effect of early childhood adversity on child health". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 160 (12): 1232–8. doi:10.1001/archpedi.160.12.1232. PMID 17146020.
  103. ^ Flaherty EG, Thompson R, Dubowitz H, et al. (July 2013). "Adverse childhood experiences and child health in early adolescence". JAMA Pediatr. 167 (7): 622–9. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.22. PMC 3732117. PMID 23645114.
  104. ^ Springer KW, Sheridan J, Kuo D, Carnes M (2007). "Long-term physical and mental health consequences of childhood physical abuse: results from a large population-based sample of men and women". Child Abuse Negl. 31 (5): 517–30. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.01.003. PMC 3031095. PMID 17532465.
  105. ^ Long-Term Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect. Child Welfare Information Gateway, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2013. Factsheet Archived 13 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  106. ^ Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, Williamson DF, Spitz AM, Edwards V, Koss MP, Marks JS (1998). "Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 14 (4): 245–58. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8. PMID 9635069. S2CID 26055600.
  107. ^ Fuller-Thomson E, Brennenstuhl S (July 2009). "Making a link between childhood physical abuse and cancer: results from a regional representative survey". Cancer. 115 (14): 3341–50. doi:10.1002/cncr.24372. PMID 19472404. S2CID 17102800.
  108. ^ a b Kolassa, Iris – Tatjana (2012). "Biological memory of childhood maltreatment – current knowledge and recommendations for future research" (PDF). Ulmer Volltextserver – Institutional Repository der Universität Ulm. 1262 (1): 93–100. Bibcode:2012NYASA1262...93S. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06617.x. PMID 22823440. S2CID 205937864. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 May 2014. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
  109. ^ Shalev I, Moffitt TE, Sugden K, Williams B, Houts RM, Danese A, Mill J, Arseneault L, Caspi A (2013). "Exposure to violence during childhood is associated with telomere erosion from 5 to 10 years of age: a longitudinal study". Mol. Psychiatry. 18 (5): 576–81. doi:10.1038/mp.2012.32. PMC 3616159. PMID 22525489.
  110. ^ Keeshin BR, Cronholm PF, Strawn JR (2012). "Physiologic changes associated with violence and abuse exposure: An examination of related medical conditions". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 13 (1): 41–56. doi:10.1177/1524838011426152. PMID 22186168. S2CID 46028000.
  111. ^ Matosin N, Cruceanu C, Binder EB (February 2017). "Preclinical and Clinical Evidence of DNA Methylation Changes in Response to Trauma and Chronic Stress". Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks, Calif.) (Review). 1: 247054701771076. doi:10.1177/2470547017710764. PMC 5831952. PMID 29503977.
  112. ^ a b Division of Violence Prevention (12 December 2017). "The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study". cdc.gov. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 31 December 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
  113. ^ "Adverse Childhood Experiences Reported by Adults --- Five States, 2009". Archived from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  114. ^ "Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study -Child Maltreatment-Violence Prevention-Injury Center-CDC". 12 December 2017. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  115. ^ "Washington State Healthy Youth Survey 2010 Analytic Report" (PDF) (Report). Washington State Department of Health. June 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2015.
  116. ^ Miller AB; et al. (2013). "The Relation Between Child Maltreatment and Adolescent Suicidal Behavior: A Systematic Review and Critical Examination of the Literature". Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 16 (2): 146–72. doi:10.1007/s10567-013-0131-5. PMC 3724419. PMID 23568617.
  117. ^ Enoch, Marry-Anne (2011). "The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence". Psychopharmacology. 214 (1): 17–31. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6. PMC 3005022. PMID 20596857.
  118. ^ Gauthier L, Stollak G, Messé L, Aronoff J (July 1996). "Recall of childhood neglect and physical abuse as differential predictors of current psychological functioning". Child Abuse & Neglect. 20 (7): 549–59. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00043-9. PMID 8832112.
  119. ^ Malinosky-Rummell R, Hansen DJ (July 1993). "Long-term consequences of childhood physical abuse". Psychological Bulletin. 114 (1): 68–79. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.68. PMID 8346329.
  120. ^ Lyons-Ruth, K.; Jacobvitz, D. (1999). "Attachment disorganization: unresolved loss, relational violence and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies". In Cassidy, J.; Shaver, P. (eds.). Handbook of Attachment. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 520–554.
  121. ^ Solomon, J.; George, C., eds. (1999). Attachment Disorganization. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-57230-480-2.[page needed]
  122. ^ Main, M.; Hesse, E. (1990). "Parents' Unresolved Traumatic Experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status". In Greenberg, M.T.; Ciccehetti, D; Cummings, E.M. (eds.). Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention. University of Chicago Press. pp. 161–184. ISBN 978-0-226-30629-2.
  123. ^ "Child Abuse Statistics". Childhelp. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  124. ^ Carlson EA (August 1998). "A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation". Child Development. 69 (4): 1107–28. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06163.x. JSTOR 1132365. PMID 9768489.
  125. ^ Lyons-Ruth K (February 1996). "Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: the role of disorganized early attachment patterns". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 64 (1): 64–73. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.463.4585. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.64.1.64. PMID 8907085.
  126. ^ Lyons-Ruth K, Alpern L, Repacholi B (April 1993). "Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom". Child Development. 64 (2): 572–85. doi:10.2307/1131270. JSTOR 1131270. PMID 8477635.
  127. ^ Carlson, V.; et al. (1995). "Finding order in disorganization: Lessons from research on maltreated infants' attachments to their caregivers". In Cicchetti, D.; Carlson, V. (eds.). Child Maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–157.
  128. ^ Cicchetti, D.; et al. (1990). "An organizational perspective on attachment beyond infancy". In Greenberg, M.; Cicchetti, D; MCummings, M. (eds.). Attachment in the Preschool Years. University of Chicago Press. pp. 3–50. ISBN 978-0-226-30629-2.
  129. ^ Schechter DS, Coates SW, Kaminer T, Coots T, Zeanah CH, Davies M, Schonfeld IS, Marshall RD, Liebowitz MR, Trabka KA, McCaw JE, Myers MM (2008). "Distorted maternal mental representations and atypical behavior in a clinical sample of violence-exposed mothers and their toddlers". Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. 9 (2): 123–149. doi:10.1080/15299730802045666. PMC 2577290. PMID 18985165.
  130. ^ Schechter DS, Zygmunt A, Coates SW, Davies M, Trabka K, McCaw J, Kolodji A, Robinson J (2007). "Caregiver traumatization adversely impacts young children's mental representations of self and others". Attachment & Human Development. 9 (3): 187–205. doi:10.1080/14616730701453762. PMC 2078523. PMID 18007959.
  131. ^ Schechter DS, Myers MM, Brunelli SA, Coates SW, Zeanah CH, Davies M, Grienenberger JF, Marshall RD, McCaw JE, Trabka KA, Liebowitz MR (2006). "Traumatized mothers can change their minds about their toddlers: Understanding how a novel use of video feedback supports positive change of maternal attributions". Infant Mental Health Journal. 27 (5): 429–448. doi:10.1002/imhj.20101. PMC 2078524. PMID 18007960.
  132. ^ a b c d e Green, Arthur H. (1978). "Psychopathology of Abused Children". Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry. 17 (1). Elsevier BV: 92–103. doi:10.1016/s0002-7138(09)62281-0. ISSN 0002-7138. PMID 632489.
  133. ^ a b Takele Hamnasu, MBA. Impact of Childhood Abuse on Adult Health. Amberton University.[page needed]
  134. ^ "Factsheets". childwelfare.gov. Archived from the original on 13 November 2010. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
  135. ^ "Childhood Sexual Abuse: A Mental Health Issue". Here to Help. Archived from the original on 5 October 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
  136. ^ Hanson, Jamie L; Hariri, Ahmad R; Williamson, Douglas E (2015). "Blunted Ventral Striatum Development in Adolescence Reflects Emotional Neglect and Predicts Depressive Symptoms". Biological Psychiatry. 78 (9): 598–605. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.05.010. PMC 4593720. PMID 26092778. Emotional neglect is associated with multiple negative outcomes, particularly increased risk for depression. Motivated by increasing evidence of reward-related ventral striatum (VS) dysfunction in depression, we investigated the role of developmental changes in VS activity on the emergence of depressive symptomatology as a function of emotional neglect. … We found that greater levels of emotional neglect were associated with blunted development of reward-related VS activity.
  137. ^ "Study of Living Conditions 1986–1987" INSEE survey with a sample of 13–154 individuals, cf. Menahem G., "Problèmes de l'enfance, statut social et santé des adultes", IRDES, biblio No 1010, pp. 59–63, Paris.
  138. ^ "National Statistics on Child Abuse". National Children's Alliance. Archived from the original on 2 May 2014.
  139. ^ Ellis, Bruce J.; Boyce, W. Thomas (2008). "Biological Sensitivity to Context". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 17 (3): 183–187. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00571.x. S2CID 16688319.
  140. ^ Fontana VJ (October 1984). "The maltreatment syndrome of children". Pediatric Annals. 13 (10): 736–44. PMID 6504584.
  141. ^ a b c Djeddah, Carol; Facchin, Paola; Ranzato, Cristina; Romer, Claude (15 September 2000). "Child abuse: current problems and key public health challenges". Social Science & Medicine. 51 (6): 905–915. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00070-8. ISSN 0277-9536. PMID 10972434.
  142. ^ a b Ross, S. (1996). "Risk of physical abuse to children of spouse abusing parents". Child Abuse & Neglect. 20 (7): 589–598. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00046-4. PMID 8832115.
  143. ^ Twentyman CT, Plotkin RC (1982). "Unrealistic expectations of parents who maltreat their children: an educational deficit that pertains to child development". J Clin Psychol. 38 (3): 497–503. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198207)38:3<497::aid-jclp2270380306>3.0.co;2-x. PMID 7107912. S2CID 25302667.
  144. ^ Durrant, Joan (March 2008). "Physical Punishment, Culture, and Rights: Current Issues for Professionals". Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 29 (1): 55–66. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e318135448a. PMID 18300726. S2CID 20693162. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016.
  145. ^ Gershoff, Elizabeth T. (Spring 2010). "More Harm Than Good: A Summary of Scientific Research on the Intended and Unintended Effects of Corporal Punishment on Children". Law & Contemporary Problems. 73 (2): 31–56. Archived from the original on 20 June 2017.
  146. ^ Lesa Bethea (1999). "Primary Prevention of Child Abuse". American Family Physician. 59 (6): 1577–85, 1591–2. PMID 10193598. Archived from the original on 28 December 2010.
  147. ^ a b c d Eisenberg, Leon; Brown, Sarah Hart (1995). The Best Intentions: Unintended Pregnancy and the Well-Being of Children and Families. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-0-309-05230-6.
  148. ^ Hathaway J.E.; Mucci L.A.; Silverman J.G.; et al. (2000). "Health status and health care use of Massachusetts women reporting partner abuse". Am J Prev Med. 19 (4): 302–307. doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(00)00236-1. PMID 11064235.
  149. ^ a b c "Family Planning – Healthy People 2020". Archived from the original on 28 December 2010. Retrieved 18 August 2011. Which cites:
  150. ^ Jones L, Bellis MA, Wood S, et al. (8 September 2012). "Prevalence and risk of violence against children with disabilities: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies". The Lancet. 380 (9845): 899–907. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60692-8. PMID 22795511. S2CID 21485530.
  151. ^ Shumba, A.; Abosi, O.C. (2011). "The Nature, Extent and Causes of Abuse of Children with Disabilities in Schools in Botswana". International Journal of Disability, Development & Education. 58 (4): 373–388. doi:10.1080/1034912X.2011.626664. S2CID 145145228.
  152. ^ Murphy JM, Jellinek M, Quinn D, Smith G, Poitrast FG, Goshko M (1991). "Substance abuse and serious child mistreatment: prevalence, risk, and outcome in a court sample". Child Abuse & Neglect. 15 (3): 197–211. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(91)90065-L. PMID 2043972.
  153. ^ Famularo R, Kinscherff R, Fenton T (1992). "Parental substance abuse and the nature of child maltreatment". Child Abuse & Neglect. 16 (4): 475–83. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(92)90064-X. PMID 1393711.
  154. ^ Burlew, Kathleen (4 November 2013). "Parenting and problem behaviors in children of substance abusing parents". Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 18 (4): 231–239. doi:10.1111/camh.12001. PMID 32847306.
  155. ^ Garsden, Peter (June 2009). "Does child abuse cause crime?". insidetime. Archived from the original on 29 December 2011.
  156. ^ "Child Abuse". Florida Performs. Archived from the original on 13 January 2010.
  157. ^ Hughes, Sandra (20 May 2009). "Child Abuse Spikes During Recession". CBS News. Archived from the original on 19 September 2009.
  158. ^ Conron, Kerith J.; Beardslee, William; Koenen, Karestan C.; Buka, Stephen L.; Gortmaker, Steven L. (5 October 2009). "A Longitudinal Study of Maternal Depression and Child Maltreatment in a National Sample of Families Investigated by Child Protective Services". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 163 (10): 922–30. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.176. ISSN 1072-4710. PMID 19805711.
  159. ^ Casey, Patrick; Goolsby, Susan; Berkowitz, Carol; Frank, Deborah; Cook, John; Cutts, Diana; Black, Maureen M.; Zaldivar, Nieves; Levenson, Suzette (February 2004). "Maternal depression, changing public assistance, food security, and child health status". Pediatrics. 113 (2): 298–304. doi:10.1542/peds.113.2.298. ISSN 1098-4275. PMID 14754941. S2CID 40550743.
  160. ^ Freeman, Michael (1997). "Beyond conventions—towards empowerment". The Moral Status of Children: Essays on the Rights of the Child. Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 76. ISBN 978-90-411-0377-2. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016.
  161. ^ "Corporal Punishment in Schools". American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  162. ^ "Corporal punishment". Council of Europe. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  163. ^ Zimrin, Hantta (May 1996). "Licensing parents: Can we prevent child abuse and neglect?". Child Abuse & Neglect. 20 (5): 468–469. doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(96)90007-1. ISSN 0145-2134.
  164. ^ a b Zevulun D, Post WJ, Zijlstra AE, Kalverboer ME, Knorth EJ (22 February 2018). The Best Interests of the Child from different cultural perspectives:Factors influencing judgements of the quality of child-rearing environment and construct validity of the Best Interests of the Child-Questionnaire (BIC-Q) in Kosovo and Albania. OCLC 1028551290.
  165. ^ Sebre S, Sprugevica I, Novotni A, Bonevski D, Pakalniskiene V, Popescu D, Turchina T, Friedrich W, Lewis O (2004). "Cross-cultural comparisons of child-reported emotional and physical abuse: Rates, risk factors and psychosocial symptoms". Child Abuse & Neglect. 28 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.06.004. PMID 15019442.
  166. ^ a b c d e Sebre S, Sprugevica I, Novotni A, Bonevski D, Pakalniskiene V, Popescu D, Turchina T, Friedrich W, Lewis O (2004). "Cross-cultural comparisons of child-reported emotional and physical abuse: Rates, risk factors and psychosocial symptoms". Child Abuse & Neglect. 28 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.06.004. PMID 15019442.
  167. ^ a b c Lau, A. S., Takeuchi, D. T., & Alegría, M. (2006). Parent-to-child aggression among Asian American parents: Culture, context, and vulnerability. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(5), 1261–1275. Retrieved
  168. ^ Haeuser, A. A. (1990). "Banning parental use of physical punishment: Success in Sweden". International Congress on Child Abuse and Neglect. Hamburg.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  169. ^ Barth, Richard (1994). Child Welfare Research Review, Volume 1. Columbia University Press. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0-231-08075-0. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
  170. ^ Durrant, Joan E. (1996). "The Swedish Ban on Corporal Punishment: Its History and Effects". In Detlev Frehsee; Wiebke Horn; Kai-D. Bussmann (eds.). From Family Violence Against Children: A Challenge for Society. New York: Walter de Gruyter & Co. pp. 19–25. ISBN 978-3-11-014996-8. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016.
  171. ^ YTN (16 March 2016). "지난해 아동학대 17% 증가...가해자 75% 친부모". Archived from the original on 5 April 2016.
  172. ^ Muri, K.; Augusti, E.M.; Bjørnholt, M.; Hafstad, G.S (2022). "Childhood experiences of companion animal abuse and its co-occurrence with domestic abuse: Evidence from a national youth survey in Norway". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 37 (23–24): NP22627–NP22646. doi:10.1177/08862605211072176. PMC 9679564. PMID 35156447. S2CID 246806885.
  173. ^ a b Christian, C. W. (27 April 2015). "The Evaluation of Suspected Child Physical Abuse". Pediatrics. 135 (5): e1337–e1354. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-0356. PMID 25917988.
  174. ^ Flaherty, E.G. "From Suspicion of Physical Child Abuse to Reporting: Primary Care Clinician Decision-Making". publications.aap.org. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
  175. ^ Kenny, Richard (25 July 2017). "Cartoon alien helps children in Mexico deal with trauma". BBC News (Video). Retrieved 27 July 2020.
  176. ^ Wilson, S.F.W, Giddens, J.F.G. (2009) Health Assessment for Nursing Practice. St.Louis: Mosby Elsevier, page 506.
  177. ^ Brown, Ted; Bourke-Taylor, Helen (1 September 2014). "Children and Youth Instrument Development and Testing Articles Published in the American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 2009–2013: A Content, Methodology, and Instrument Design Review". American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 68 (5): e154–e216. doi:10.5014/ajot.2014.012237. ISSN 0272-9490. PMID 25184476.
  178. ^ "Clinical Interviewing". www.carepatron.com. Retrieved 5 July 2024.
  179. ^ Truman, P. (2004). "Problems in identifying cases of child neglect". Nursing Standard. 18 (29): 33–38. doi:10.7748/ns2004.03.18.29.33.c3579. PMID 15079965. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
  180. ^ Williams, M. (2015) Evidence based decisions in child neglect: An evaluation of an exploratory approach to assessment using the North Carolina Family Assessment Scale Archived 22 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine, London, NSPCC.
  181. ^ Connell-Carrick, Kelli (1 October 2003). "A Critical Review of the Empirical Literature: Identifying Correlates of Child Neglect". Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. 20 (5): 389–425. doi:10.1023/A:1026099913845. ISSN 1573-2797. S2CID 142581537.
  182. ^ "Child Abuse Symptoms, Causes, Treatment – How can child abuse be prevented? on MedicineNet". Medicinenet.com. Archived from the original on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
  183. ^ Dubowitz, Howard; Lane, Wendy G.; Semiatin, Joshua N.; Magder, Laurence S. (July 2012). "The SEEK Model of Pediatric Primary Care: Can Child Maltreatment Be Prevented in a Low-Risk Population?". Academic Pediatrics. 12 (4): 259–268. doi:10.1016/j.acap.2012.03.005. PMC 5482714. PMID 22658954.
  184. ^ Dubowitz, H.; Lane, W. G.; Semiatin, J. N.; Magder, L. S.; Venepally, M.; Jans, M. (1 April 2011). "The Safe Environment for Every Kid Model: Impact on Pediatric Primary Care Professionals". Pediatrics. 127 (4): e962–e970. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-1845. ISSN 0031-4005. PMC 3387892. PMID 21444590.
  185. ^ "Pediatrician Training and In-Office Support Significantly Reduce Instances of Child Maltreatment". Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 22 May 2013. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  186. ^ "Child Abuse Experts Provide Videoconference-Enabled Consultations to Providers in Remote Emergency Departments and Clinics, Leading to More Accurate Diagnosis". Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 26 March 2014. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
  187. ^ Baumrind (1993). Optimal Caregiving and Child Abuse: Continuities and Discontinuities. National Academy of Sciences Study Panel on Child Abuse and Neglect (Report). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
  188. ^ Cron T (1986). The Surgeon General's Workshop on Violence and Public Health: Review of the recommendations. Public Health Rep. (Report). Vol. 101. pp. 8–14.
  189. ^ Wade R Jr, Cronholm PF, Fein JA, Forke CM, Davis MB, Harkins-Schwarz M, Pachter LM, Bair-Merritt MH (2016). "Household and community-level Adverse Childhood Experiences and adult health outcomes in a diverse urban population". Child Abuse & Neglect. 52: 135–45. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.11.021. PMID 26726759.
  190. ^ Hosin, A.A., ed. (2007). Responses to traumatized children. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 211. ISBN 978-1-4039-9680-0.
  191. ^ Briere, John (1992). Child abuse trauma. Sage. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8039-3713-0.
  192. ^ Babatsikos, Georgia (2010). "Parents' knowledge, attitudes and practices about preventing child sexual abuse: a literature review". Child Abuse Review. 19 (2): 107–129. doi:10.1002/car.1102. ISSN 0952-9136.
  193. ^ Hébert, Martine; Lavoie, Francine; Parent, Nathalie (1 June 2002). "An Assessment of Outcomes Following Parents' Participation in a Child Abuse Prevention Program". Violence and Victims. 17 (3): 355–372. doi:10.1891/vivi.17.3.355.33664. ISSN 0886-6708. PMID 12102058. S2CID 33445782.
  194. ^ Wurtele, Sandy K.; Moreno, Tasha; Kenny, Maureen C. (2008). "Evaluation of a Sexual Abuse Prevention Workshop for Parents of Young Children". Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. 1 (4): 331–340. doi:10.1080/19361520802505768. ISSN 1936-1521. S2CID 146651342.
  195. ^ Wurtele, Sandy K.; Kenny, Maureen C. (2010). "Partnering with parents to prevent childhood sexual abuse". Child Abuse Review. 19 (2): 130–152. doi:10.1002/car.1112. ISSN 0952-9136.
  196. ^ Williams, Mike (2018). "Four Steps to the Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse in the Home" (PDF). NSPCC.
  197. ^ Williams, Mike (2018). "Working with a community to prevent child sexual abuse in the home" (PDF). NSPCC. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  198. ^ Child Welfare Information Gateway Archived 28 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine, History of National Child Abuse Prevention Month. 3 April 2009.
  199. ^ Presidential Proclamation Marking National Child Abuse Prevention Month Archived 31 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. The White House – Press Room, 1 April 2009.
  200. ^ U.S. Administration for Children and Families Archived 30 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Department of Health and Human Services. Children's Bureau.
  201. ^ "The federal government has one main law to prevent child abuse. No state follows all of it – The Boston Globe". BostonGlobe.com.
  202. ^ a b Douglas, E.M., 2005, Child maltreatment fatalities: What do we know, what have we learned, and where do we go from here?,pp 4.1–4.18, in Child Victimization, edited by K. Kendall-Tackett & S. Giacomoni, published by Civic Research Institute, Kingston, N.J.
  203. ^ a b c d e Cohen, J.A.; Mannarino, A.P.; Murray, L.K.; Igelman, R. (2006). "Psychosocial Interventions for Maltreated and Violence-Exposed Children". Journal of Social Issues. 62 (4): 737–766. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.578.243. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2006.00485.x.
  204. ^ Evans, Jane (8 October 2014). "Children Who Experience Early Childhood Trauma Do Not 'Just Get Over It'". Social Work Helper. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  205. ^ Walsh, Kerryann (16 April 2015). "School-based education programmes for the prevention of child sexual abuse". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015 (4): CD004380. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004380.pub3. PMC 9805791. PMID 25876919.
  206. ^ Child Welfare Information Gateway, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2003). "School-Based Child Maltreatment Programs" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  207. ^ Schechter DS, Zygmunt A, Trabka KA, Davies M, Colon E, Kolodji A, McCaw JE (2007). "Child mental representations of attachment when mothers are traumatized: The relationship of family-drawings to story-stem completion". Journal of Early Childhood and Infant Psychology. 3: 119–141. PMC 2268110. PMID 18347736.
  208. ^ "Parent training works for child and adolescent mental health". 19 January 2017.
  209. ^ a b "Child maltreatment: Fact sheet No. 150". World Health Organization. December 2014. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015.
  210. ^ Panel on Research on Child Abuse and Neglect (1993). "Front matter". Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. doi:10.17226/2117. ISBN 978-0-309-04889-7. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016.
  211. ^ "SPEAKING ONLY SPANISH AT HOME IS ABUSE, TEXAS JUDGE RULES". deseretnews.com. 29 August 1995. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
  212. ^ Besharov, Douglas J. (1 January 1998). "Fixing Child Protection". Philanthropy Roundtable. pp. 1–4. Archived from the original on 14 March 2013.
  213. ^ Krason, Stephen M. "The Critics of Current Child Abuse Laws and the Child Protective System: A Survey of the Leading" (PDF). The Catholic Social Science Review. pp. 307–350. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2014.
  214. ^ "Child Abuse". Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale. 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
  215. ^ "Child Maltreatment: Facts at a Glance" (PDF). Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2017.
  216. ^ Kim, Hyunil; Wildeman, Christopher; Jonson-Reid, Melissa; Drake, Brett (1 February 2017). "Lifetime Prevalence of Investigating Child Maltreatment Among US Children". American Journal of Public Health. 107 (2): 274–280. doi:10.2105/ajph.2016.303545. PMC 5227926. PMID 27997240.
  217. ^ Finkelhor, David; Lisa Jones; Anne Shuttuch. "Updated Trends in Child Maltreatment, 2010" (PDF). University of New Hampshire, Crimes Against Children Research Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
  218. ^ Child Maltreatment 2008 Archived 5 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, p. 55.
  219. ^ Lee, Joyce Y.; Yoon, Susan; Park, Keunhye; Radney, Angelise; Shipe, Stacey L.; Pace, Garrett T. (11 April 2023). "Father–Mother Co-Involvement in Child Maltreatment: Associations of Prior Perpetration, Parental Substance Use, Parental Medical Conditions, Inadequate Housing, and Intimate Partner Violence with Different Maltreatment Types". Children. 10 (4): 707. doi:10.3390/children10040707. ISSN 2227-9067. PMC 10136478. PMID 37189957.
  220. ^ "Child trafficking". UNICEF. 22 March 2011. Archived from the original on 1 March 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  221. ^ "The Human Trafficking Project: Human Trafficking for Begging: Old Game, New Name". The Human Trafficking Project. Archived from the original on 26 March 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  222. ^ "Child trafficking – begging and organised crime" (PDF). ECPAT UK. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2013.
  223. ^ David M. Smolin (2005). "Intercountry Adoption as Child Trafficking". Valparaiso Law Review. 39 (2). Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  224. ^ "Training Manual to Fight Child Trafficking in Children for Labour, Sexual and Other Forms of Exploitation" (PDF). Unicef. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 September 2013. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
  225. ^ "Victims No Longer: Research on Child Survivors of Trafficking for Sexual and Labor Exploitation in the United States" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
  226. ^ Every child counts: new global estimates on child labour. ILO International Labour Office. 2002. ISBN 978-92-2-113113-7. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
  227. ^ "What is child labour?". International Labour Organisation. 2012. Archived from the original on 14 July 2017.
  228. ^ "United Nations Resources for Speakers on Global Issues – Child Labour". United Nations. Archived from the original on 7 August 2013. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
  229. ^ "International and national legislation – Child Labour". International Labour Organisation. 2011. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012.
  230. ^ "Child Labour". Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  231. ^ Sullivan, Kevin (26 December 2008). "In Togo, a 10-Year-Old's Muted Cry: 'I Couldn't Take Any More'". The Washington Post. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  232. ^ "Forced Adoption Case Against Norway Hits European Rights Court". courthousenews. 27 January 2021.
  233. ^ Whewell, Tim (3 August 2018). "Norway's hidden scandal". BBC News. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  234. ^ "Historian reveals tragedy of Swiss child trade". Swissinfo.ch. 29 February 2004. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015.
  235. ^ Puri, Kavita (29 October 2014). "Switzerland's shame: The children used as cheap farm labour". BBC News. Archived from the original on 20 July 2016. Retrieved 28 June 2016.
  236. ^ Jordans, Frank (24 November 2011). "Swiss grapple with history of forced child labor". Boston.com. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015.
  237. ^ Foulkes, Imogen (19 January 2012). "Swiss 'contract children' speak out". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016.
  238. ^ "The Stolen Generations". Australians Together. Archived from the original on 19 November 2015.
  239. ^ "The agony of Australia's Stolen Generation". BBC News. 9 August 2007. Archived from the original on 4 December 2007.
  240. ^ Griffiths, Sian (13 June 2015). "The schools that had cemeteries instead of playgrounds". BBC News. Archived from the original on 19 October 2015.
  241. ^ "Survivor of Canada's residential schools talks about abuse". BBC News. 5 June 2015. Archived from the original on 18 October 2015.
  242. ^ Paquin, Mali Ilse (6 June 2015). "Canada confronts its dark history of abuse in residential schools". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 January 2017.
  243. ^ Luxen, Micah (4 June 2015). "Survivors of Canada's 'cultural genocide' still healing". BBC News. Archived from the original on 25 July 2016.
  244. ^ "Canada apology for native schools". BBC News. 11 June 2008. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015.
  245. ^ Sudworth, John (4 July 2019). "China separating Muslim children from families". BBC News. Archived from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  246. ^ Dugger, Celia W. (5 December 2009). "Aid Gives Alternative to African Orphanages". The New York Times.
  247. ^ "Nigeria 'baby factory' raided in Lagos". BBC News. 26 April 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2023.
  248. ^ "Nigerian's battle to keep her baby". BBC News. 26 September 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2023.
  249. ^ "'One Child Nation' Exposes the Tragic Consequences of Chinese Population Control". Reason TV. 16 August 2019. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021.
  250. ^ "Discrimination kills 230,000 girls under five in India each year, study shows". The Guardian. 15 May 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  251. ^ Mariya Karimjee (14 January 2014). "Infanticide is on the rise in Pakistan | Al Jazeera America". America.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
  252. ^ RANJANI IYER MOHANTY (25 May 2012). "Trash Bin Babies: India's Female Infanticide Crisis". The Atlantic. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  253. ^ "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern" (PDF). New York: United Nations Children's Fund. 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
  254. ^ a b c "WHO – Female genital mutilation". WHO. February 2016. Archived from the original on 28 June 2016. Retrieved 28 June 2016.
  255. ^ "Prisoners of Ritual, An Odyssey into Female Genital Mutilation in Africa". Hanny Lightfoot-Klein. Archived from the original on 21 August 2014. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
  256. ^ "An update on WHO's work on female genital mutilation (FGM)" Archived 1 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine, World Health Organization, 2011, p. 2: "Most women who have experienced FGM live in one of the 28 countries in Africa and the Middle East – nearly half of them in just two countries: Egypt and Ethiopia. Countries in which FGM has been documented include: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Togo, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania and Yemen. The prevalence of FGM ranges from 0.6% to 98% of the female population."
    • Rahman, Anika and Toubia, Nahid. Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide. Zed Books, 2000 (hereafter Rahman and Toubia 2000), p. 7: "Currently, FC/FGM is practiced in 28 African countries in the sub-Saharan and Northeastern regions."
    • Also see "Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation" Archived 10 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine, World Health Organization, 2008, p. 4: "Types I, II and III female genital mutilation have been documented in 28 countries in Africa and in a few countries in Asia and the Middle East."
  257. ^ John LeJeune; Gerry Mackie. "Social dynamics of abandonment of harmful practices: a new look at the theory" (PDF). UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2013.
  258. ^ "WHO – New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth". Archived from the original on 8 March 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  259. ^ "Female genital mutilation". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  260. ^ "The Convention of Belém do Pará and the Istanbul Convention: A response to violence against women worldwide" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016.
  261. ^ See Article 38 – Female genital mutilation Archived 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, page 11 Archived 26 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  262. ^ Pérez, Guillermo Martínez; Tomás Aznar, Concepción; Bagnol, Brigitte (14 July 2014). "Labia Minora Elongation and its Implications on the Health of Women: A Systematic Review". International Journal of Sexual Health. 26 (3): 155–171. doi:10.1080/19317611.2013.851139. S2CID 72132133.
  263. ^ Rosaline Ngunshi (August 2011). "BREAST IRONING… A HARMFUL PRACTICE THAT HAS BEEN SILENCED FOR TOO LONG" (PDF). GENDER EMPOWERMENT AND DEVELOPMENT. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  264. ^ Lazareva, Inna (26 January 2019). "Revealed: 'dozens' of girls subjected to breast-ironing in UK". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  265. ^ Lazareva, Inna (13 February 2019). "Breast-ironing: UK government vows to tackle abusive practice". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  266. ^ Ed Butler (21 July 2016). "The man hired to have sex with children". BBC News. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  267. ^ N. Bell, Ariana; Juvonen, Jaana (25 July 2020). "Gender Discrimination, Perceived School Unfairness, Depressive Symptoms, and Sleep Duration Among Middle School Girls". Child Development. 91 (6): 1865–1876. doi:10.1111/cdev.13388. ISSN 0009-3920. PMID 32712961. S2CID 220797745.
  268. ^ "Acid attacks, poison: What Afghan girls risk by going to school". 2 August 2012.
  269. ^ "Official: 160 girls poisoned at Afghan school". 29 May 2012.
  270. ^ "The 'Poisoned' Girls of Afghanistan". 25 April 2013.
  271. ^ "Afghan schoolgirls 'poisoning' probed". BBC News. 8 September 2015.
  272. ^ "Two more girls' schools burnt down in Pakistan – Times of India". The Times of India. 8 August 2018.
  273. ^ "Girls' school burned down in Afghanistan, Qurans destroyed".
  274. ^ "Definition of forced and child marriage". United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  275. ^ Thomas, Cheryl (19 June 2009). "Forced and early marriage: a focus on central and eastern Europe and former Soviet Union countries with selected laws from other countries" (PDF). United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women; United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 July 2015.
  276. ^ Bhowmick, Nilanjana (14 October 2013). "India Criticized for Not Co-Sponsoring U.N. Child-Bride Resolution". Time. Archived from the original on 29 November 2013.
  277. ^ "Child brides around the world sold off like cattle". USA Today. 8 March 2013. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017.
  278. ^ "Ethiopian girls fear forced marriage". 14 May 2006.
  279. ^ "The truth about bride kidnapping: An insider interview on Chechnya". 14 January 2015. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
  280. ^ "One in five girls and women kidnapped for marriage in Kyrgyzstan". Reuters. August 2017.
  281. ^ "Nigeria's young daughters are sold as 'money wives'". Al Jazeera. 21 September 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  282. ^ "Money wives: The Nigerian girls sold to repay debts". BBC. 17 September 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  283. ^ "'Money wives': Nigerian girls sold off to settle debts". France 24. 9 June 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  284. ^ a b c "The Right to Kill". Foreign Policy. 9 April 2018. Retrieved 9 June 2018.
  285. ^ Petros, Gezahegn (2000). The Karo of the lower Omo Valley: subsistence, social organisation and relations with neighbouring groups. Dept. of Sociology, Anthropology and Social Administration, Addis Ababa University. p. 57. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015.
  286. ^ a b "Rise in African children accused of witchcraft". Archived 16 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine BBC News, 17 July 2010.
  287. ^ "Cases of children accused of 'witchcraft' rising in parts of West and Central Africa". UNICEF. 28 July 2010. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  288. ^ Dowden, Richard (12 February 2006). "Thousands of child 'witches' turned on to the streets to starve" Archived 15 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine. The Observer (London).
  289. ^ Byrne, Carrie (16 June 2011). "Hunting the vulnerable: Witchcraft and the law in Malawi" Archived 29 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Consultancy Africa Intelligence.
  290. ^ "Abuse of child 'witches' on rise, aid group says" Archived 6 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine. CNN. 18 May 2009.
  291. ^ "Child witchcraft allegations on the rise – Angola – Benin – DRC – Central African Republic – Cameroon – Gabon – Nigeria – Chad – Children – Education – Gender Issues – Human Rights – Urban Risk". IRINnews. 15 July 2010. Archived from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  292. ^ Mbiti, John 1975. Introduction to African Religion (2nd rev. ed.). Oxford: Heinemann: 117–118, 165.
  293. ^ Moreau, A. Scott 1990. The World of the Spirits: A Bible Study in the African Context. Nairobi: Evangel, p. 116.
  294. ^ Bussien, Nathaly et al. 2011. Breaking the spell: Responding to witchcraft accusations against children, in New Issues in refugee Research (197). Geneva, Switzerland: UNHCR
  295. ^ Cimpric, Aleksandra 2010. Children accused of witchcraft, An anthropological study of contemporary practices in Africa. Dakar, Senegal: UNICEF WCARO
  296. ^ Molina, Javier Aguilar 2006. The Invention of Child Witches in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Social cleansing, religious commerce and the difficulties of being a parent in an urban culture. London: Save the Children
  297. ^ Human Rights Watch 2006. Children in the DRC. Human Rights Watch report, 18 (2)
  298. ^ a b c Appel JM (October 2009). "Mixed motives, mixed outcomes when accused parents won't agree to withdraw care". Journal of Medical Ethics. 35 (10): 635–7. doi:10.1136/jme.2009.030510. PMID 19793945. S2CID 36455495. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  299. ^ "Springfield man denies charges in infant assault", Rutland Herald, New Hampshire, 5 August 2008.
  300. ^ "Springfield Father Charged with Baby's Murder" Archived 6 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine, WCAX.com, Vermont, 21 January 2009.
  301. ^ "Withdrawal Okay When Surrogate's Refusal to Consent Based on Wrong Reasons" Archived 8 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Medical Futility (blog).
  302. ^ National Center for Youth Law. "Minor Consent, Confidentiality, and Child Abuse Reporting". Archived from the original on 15 December 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
  303. ^ Mendes, Philip (1999). "Marxist and feminist critiques of child protection: To protect children or to change society?". Children Australia. 24 (2): 27–31. doi:10.1017/S103507720000910X. S2CID 147579145. Archived from the original on 6 November 2017. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  304. ^ "When Race and Drugs Intersect, Children More Likely to Enter Foster Care | WNYC | New York Public Radio, Podcasts, Live Streaming Radio, News". WNYC.
  305. ^ "'A lost tribe': Child welfare system accused of repeating residential school history". Nationalpost. 15 December 2014.
  306. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) | Canadian Child Welfare Research Portal". cwrp.ca.
  307. ^ "Insight: German sect victims seek escape from Chilean nightmare past". Reuters. 9 May 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2019.
  308. ^ "§ 8a SGB 8 – Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. n.d. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
  309. ^ Bromfield, Leah; Holzer, Prue. Australian Institute of Family Studies Submission to the Special Commission of Inquiry into Child Protection Services in NSW (Report). Melbourne, Vic: Australian Institute of Family Studies. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.385.2444.
  310. ^ Nelson, Barbara J. (2000). Making an issue of child abuse: political agenda setting for social problems. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-57201-3. OCLC 443652284.
  311. ^ a b Weatherred, Jane Long (2 January 2015). "Child Sexual Abuse and the Media: A Literature Review". Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 24 (1): 16–34. doi:10.1080/10538712.2015.976302. ISSN 1053-8712. PMID 25635896. S2CID 38230484.
  312. ^ Raeder, Myrna (2009). "ENHANCING THE LEGAL PROFESSION'S RESPONSE TO VICTIMS OF CHILD ABUSE" (PDF). Crim. Just. 24 (12). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 12 September 2022 – via US Department of Justice.
  313. ^ Zeanah, Charles H.; Humphreys, Kathryn L. (1 September 2018). "Child Abuse and Neglect". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 57 (9): 637–644. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2018.06.007. ISSN 0890-8567. PMC 6615750. PMID 30196867.
  314. ^ Shields, Ryan T.; Letourneau, Elizabeth J. (6 February 2015). "Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children and the Emergence of Safe Harbor Legislation: Implications for Policy and Practice". Current Psychiatry Reports. 17 (3): 11. doi:10.1007/s11920-015-0553-5. ISSN 1535-1645. PMID 25652252. S2CID 40099203.
  315. ^ a b Barnert, Elizabeth S.; Abrams, Susan; Azzi, Veronica F.; Ryan, Gery; Brook, Robert; Chung, Paul J. (1 January 2016). "Identifying best practices for "Safe Harbor" legislation to protect child sex trafficking victims: Decriminalization alone is not sufficient". Child Abuse & Neglect. 51: 249–262. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.10.002. ISSN 0145-2134. PMID 26520827.
  316. ^ Child Welfare Information Gateway (April 2019). "Mandatory Reporters of Child Abuse and Neglect" (PDF).
  317. ^ Regoli RM, Hewitt JD, DeLisi M (2014). Delinquency in Society (9th ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4496-4549-6. The 1874 case of Mary Ellen Wilson is generally regarded as the first documented child abuse case in the United States.
  318. ^ Markel, Howard (14 December 2009). "Case Shined First Light on Abuse of Children". New York Times. Retrieved 15 December 2009. In fact, though, the quotation is from the 1874 case of Mary Ellen McCormack, below, a self-possessed 10-year-old who lived on West 41st Street, in the Hell's Kitchen section of Manhattan. It was Mary Ellen who finally put a human face on child abuse — and prompted a reformers' crusade to prevent it and to protect its victims, an effort that continues to this day.
  319. ^ "The Response". New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Archived from the original on 12 October 2009.
  320. ^ 🖉"The New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Elects Shane Foley, Lilian Yang and Mikal Finkelstein as New Members of Its Board of Directors".
  321. ^ "Learn about". Prevent Child Abuse America. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  322. ^ "Where We Work". Prevent Child Abuse America. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  323. ^ a b "History – National Children's Advocacy Center". www.nationalcac.org. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  324. ^ a b "Our Story". National Children's Alliance. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  325. ^ "About | CTF Alliance". Children's Trust Fund Alliance. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  326. ^ "National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome". dontshake.org. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  327. ^ a b "Strengthening Families & Communities: National Child Abuse Prevention Month". National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 2 April 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  328. ^ "Child Abuse – Canadian Red Cross". Red Cross Canada. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
  329. ^ "About Kids Help Phone". Kids Help Phone. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  330. ^ "Home - Guardiansofthechildrencanada.com". Guardians of the children Canada. Retrieved 24 April 2022.

Further reading

edit
edit