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British 21-inch torpedo

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There have been a number of 21-inch (53.3cm) torpedoes in service with the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom.

Torpedoes of 21-inch caliber were the largest torpedoes in common use in the RN. They were used by surface ships and submarines; aircraft used smaller 18-inch torpedoes.

Mark I

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HMS Pincher, a Beagle-class destroyer, in 1910. These destroyers would become the primary users of the Mark I torpedoes.

The first British 21-inch torpedo came in two lengths, "Short" at 17 ft 10.5 in (5.45 m), and "Long" at 23 ft 1.25 in (7.04 m). The explosive charge was 200 lb (91 kg) of guncotton, increased later to 225 lb (102 kg). The torpedoes were first deployed in the field in 1912 and primarily used by the Beagle-class destroyers throughout most of their service during the First World War.[1]

Specifications:[2][3]

Mark I Short

  • Entered service: 1910
  • Weight: 2,100 lb (950 kg)
  • Length: 17 ft 10.5 in (5.448 m)
  • Explosive charge: 200 lb (91 kg) Wet guncotton
  • Range and speed: 7,500 yd (6,900 m) at 16 kn (30 km/h), 1,000 yd (910 m) at 27 kn (50 km/h)

Mark I Long

  • Entered service: 1910
  • Weight: 2,800 lb (1,300 kg)
  • Length: 23 ft 1.25 in (7.0422 m)
  • Explosive charge: 200 lb (91 kg) Wet guncotton
  • Range and speed: 12,000 yd (11,000 m) at 16 kn (30 km/h), 1,000 yd (910 m) at 27 kn (50 km/h)

Mark II

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21-inch Mark II
TypeHeavy Torpedo
Place of originUnited Kingdom
Service history
In servicec. 1914 – Second World War
Used byRN
WarsFirst World War, Second World War
Production history
Designedc. 1910
Specifications
Diameter21 in (530 mm)
WarheadTNT
Warhead weight400 to 515 lb (181 to 234 kg)
EngineWet Heater
Operational
range
8,000 yd (7,300 m) max depending on model
Maximum speed 29 to 35 kn (54 to 65 km/h)

The Mark II, chiefly used by destroyers, entered service in 1914. Apart from some older British ships, it was used with the old US (destroyers-for-bases deal) Town-class destroyers provided to the UK during the early part of the Second World War. The running speed was reduced from 45 kn (83 km/h) (over 3,000 yards) for better reliability.

The Mark II*, an improved Mark II, was used by battleships and battlecruisers. A wet heater design, it could run for 4,500 yd (4,100 m) at 45 knots (83 km/h).

Mark IV

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21-inch Mark IV
 
A Mark IV torpedo being hoisted onto HMS Monarch, an Orion-class battleship, during the First World War.
TypeTorpedo
Place of originUnited Kingdom
Service history
In service1916 – Second World War
Used byRN
WarsFirst World War, Second World War
Production history
Designed1912
Specifications
Mass3,206 lb (1,454 kg)
Length22 ft 7.5 in (6.896 m)
Diameter21 in (530 mm)
WarheadTNT
Warhead weight515 lb (234 kg)
EngineWet Heater
Operational
range
8,000 to 13,500 yd (7,300 to 12,300 m)
Maximum speed 25 to 35 kn (46 to 65 km/h)

The Mark IV torpedo was the principal British torpedo of World War I. Designed 1912, initially available 1915, adopted for service 1916. Used by destroyers, torpedo boats, and other surface ships equipped with 21-inch torpedo tubes, such as the Royal Sovereign-class battleships. In the Second World War they were carried as auxiliary armament on submarines and various surface ships, including HMS Hood.

Specifications:[4][5]

Mark IV

  • Entered service: 1916
  • Weight: Approximately 3,100–3,200 lb (1,400–1,500 kg)
  • Length: 22 ft 2.5 in (6.769 m) to 22 ft 5 in (6.83 m)
  • Explosive charge: 400 or 500 lb (180 or 230 kg) TNT
  • Range and speed: 4,500 yd (4,100 m) at 44.5 kn (82.4 km/h), 15,000 yd (14,000 m) at 25 kn (46 km/h), 18,000 yd (16,000 m) at 21 kn (39 km/h)
  • Notes: Two warhead options were available, the IVa (400 lbs) and the IVb (500 lbs). Depth keeping was extremely unreliable at the 44.5-knot speed setting, prompting a suggestion to limit the top speed to 35 knots.

Mark IV*

  • Entered service: 1917
  • Weight: Approximately 3,100–3,200 lb (1,400–1,500 kg)
  • Length: 22 ft 2.5 in (6.769 m) to 22 ft 5 in (6.83 m)
  • Explosive charge: 400 or 500 lb (180 or 230 kg) TNT
  • Range and speed: 4,500 yd (4,100 m) at 44.5 kn (82.4 km/h), 6,000 yd (5,500 m) at 35 kn (65 km/h), 11,000 yd (10,000 m) at 29 kn (54 km/h), 15,000 yd (14,000 m) at 25 kn (46 km/h), 18,000 yd (16,000 m) at 21 kn (39 km/h)
  • Notes: Four speed settings and an improved gyro control gear. The Mark IV* was outfitted at the factory with either a 44.5-knot or a 35-knot high speed setting, but not both.

Mark IV Late[6]

  • Entered service: Circa 1930s
  • Weight: 3,206 lb (1,454 kg)
  • Length: 22 ft 7.5 in (6.896 m)
  • Explosive charge: 515 lb (234 kg) TNT
  • Range and speed (surface vessel variant): 8,000 yd (7,300 m) at 35 kn (65 km/h), 10,000 yd (9,100 m) at 29 kn (54 km/h), 13,500 yd (12,300 m) at 25 kn (46 km/h)
  • Range and speed (submarine variant): 6,000 yd (5,500 m) at 40 kn (74 km/h), 9,500 yd (8,700 m) at 30 kn (56 km/h)
  • Notes: Retrofitted older torpedoes in service during the Second World War. Issued to older warships and motor torpedo boats equipped with 21-inch launch tubes, as well as submarines.

Mark V

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21-inch Mark V
TypeTorpedo
Place of originUnited Kingdom
Production history
Designed1917
Specifications
Length23 ft 4 in (7.1 m)
Diameter21 in (530 mm)
EngineWet Heater
Operational
range
5,000 to 13,600 yd (4,600 to 12,400 m)
Maximum speed 20 to 40 kn (37 to 74 km/h)

The Mark V was used by the A and B-class destroyers and, with modification, by the Kent-class heavy cruisers.

Mark VII

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21-inch Mark VII
TypeHeavy Torpedo
Place of originUnited Kingdom
Service history
In serviceSecond World War
Used byRN
Production history
Designed1920s
Specifications
Length25 ft 6 in (7.77 m)
Diameter21 in (530 mm)
WarheadTNT
Warhead weight740 lb (340 kg)
EngineOxygen enriched air
Operational
range
5,700 yd (5,200 m)
Maximum speed 35 kn (65 km/h)

The Mark VII was issued for use on the British heavy cruisers, i.e. cruisers with 8-inch guns. Designed in the mid-1920s the County-class cruisers were built at the same time in the post Washington Naval Treaty period.

The power came from the use of oxygen-enriched air, though torpedo stocks were converted to run on normal air at the start of the Second World War.

Mark VIII

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Mark VIII torpedoes being loaded onto the Polish Navy submarine ORP Sokół.
 
A late-model Mark VIII torpedo exhibit at the German Naval Museum, Wilhelmshaven, Germany. Located in front of submarine U-10 (S-189).

The Mark VIII was designed circa 1925 and was the first British burner cycle design torpedo. It was used from 1927 on all submarines, beginning with the later versions of the L class and the Odin class, as well as motor torpedo boats. The principal World War II version was the improved Mark VIII**, 3,732 being fired by September 1944 (56.4% of the total number). The torpedo was still in service with the Royal Navy in a training role until recently, and was used by the Royal Norwegian Navy (Coastal Artillery: Kaholmen torpedo battery at Oscarsborg Fortress) until 1993.[7]

Specifications:[8]

Mark VIII

  • Entered service: 1927
  • Weight: 3,452 lb (1,566 kg)
  • Length: 259 in (6.6 m)
  • Explosive charge: 750 lb (340 kg) TNT
  • Range and speed: 5,000 yd (4,600 m) at 40 kn (74 km/h)

Mark VIII**

  • Explosive charge: 722 lb (327 kg) Torpex, later increased to 805 lb (365 kg) Torpex
  • Range and speed: 5,000 yd (4,600 m) at 45.6 kn (84.5 km/h), 7,000 yd (6,400 m) at 41 kn (76 km/h)

The Mark VIII** was used in two particularly notable incidents:

Mark IX

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A Mark IX torpedo undergoing maintenance while loaded in a destroyer's triple tube mounting.
 
A late-model Mark IX torpedo exhibit at the Overloon War Museum in Overloon, Netherlands. The Mark IX is the first from the top.

The Mark IX was designed circa 1928 and first deployed in 1930. The design was considerably improved by 1939. The Mark IX was a larger and longer-range sibling to the Mark VIII, employing a very similar four-cylinder radial kerosene-air burner-cycle propulsion system. Used on the Leander-class cruiser and later cruisers, A- and B-class destroyers, and later destroyer classes. Also replaced the old Mark VII torpedo in some 8 in (200 mm) gun cruisers during the war. The principal version used during the Second World War was the Mark IX**, first issued to J- and K-class destroyers in 1939. In 1943 it was decided to further improve the Mark IX** by lengthening it 12 inches (30.5 cm), and the weapon mass limit to 4,000 lb (1,800 kg), up to the capacity of torpedo tubes and ships under construction.[10] Nitromethane-augmented propulsion was considered, but its implementation required too many alterations to be practical. The final version of what would have become Mark IX*** took up the extra space by enlarging the warhead to 930 lb (420 kg) of Torpex. None were in service by the end of the war in 1945, by which time the enlarged warhead became unnecessary. The Mark IX torpedo remained in service throughout the 1960s.[11]

Specifications:[12]

Mark IX

  • Entered service: 1930
  • Weight: 3,732 lb (1,693 kg)
  • Length: 286.5 in (7.28 m)
  • Explosive charge: 727 lb (330 kg) TNT
  • Range and speed: 10,500 yd (9,600 m) at 36 kn (67 km/h), 13,500 yd (12,300 m) at 30 kn (56 km/h)

Mark IX*

  • Explosive charge: 727 lb (330 kg) TNT
  • Range and speed: 11,000 yd (10,000 m) at 36 kn (67 km/h), 14,000 yd (13,000 m) at 30 kn (56 km/h)

Mark IX**

  • Entered service: 1939
  • Explosive charge: 810 lb (370 kg) Torpex
  • Range and speed: 11,000 yd (10,000 m) at 41 kn (76 km/h), 15,000 yd (14,000 m) at 35 kn (65 km/h)

Mark X

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From 1939, used by submarines, motor torpedo boats and destroyers from other navies such as the Grom-class destroyers.[citation needed]

Mark XI

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Electric battery-powered torpedo with a 710 lb (322 kg) TNT warhead. It entered service during the Second World War and was used by destroyers.

Mark 12

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A design for a high-speed torpedo propelled by high-test peroxide (HTP), based on wartime research by Hellmuth Walter during the Second World War. At first codenamed "Ferry", then "Fancy", the Mark 12 never moved past the prototype stage. The design was conceived in 1945, after the end of the war in Europe, with the arrival of technical documentation from Germany. For economical reasons, the Mark VIII torpedo body was used, in an effort to adapt it to HTP propulsion.[13] The "Ferry" was supposed to be a surface-running torpedo with a gyroscopically-guided search pattern. Prototypes of the weapon were ready in 1953, except for the pattern-running feature, which was then omitted and the weapon was redesignated as "Fancy". In 1954, several prototypes were issued to HMS Maidstone and over 200 test runs were carried out until a catastrophic accident. On 16 June 1955, HMS Sidon was alongside HMS Maidstone in Portland Harbor, preparing to make way to Stage II trials of the "Fancy". Crewmen on the submarine were in the process of loading one of the prototype torpedoes into a launch tube, when the stop valve on the weapon was accidentally opened, triggering the release of reactant in its propulsion unit. The weapon exploded inside the launch tube, simultaneously blowing out the bow caps as well as the rear hatch of the launch tube. A blast of debris and dense carbon dioxide were propelled into the submarine. Two officers and ten seamen were killed instantly, six from the initial blast and six more by asphyxiation from the ejected gases. One more victim, a doctor from the Maidstone, subsequently perished in an effort to rescue the crew from the submarine. The submarine sank in shallow water due to flooding from the blown-open launch tube. Ultimately the accident caused enough damage to have the submarine taken permanently out of service.[14] Following this accident, a second Mark 12 Fancy exploded at the Arrochar torpedo range in Loch Long, Scotland. As a consequence of these accidents, and the perceived hazardous nature of HTP propulsion, the program was cancelled in 1959.

Specifications:[15]

Mark 12

  • Prototype date: 1952
  • Weight: 3,452 lb (1,566 kg)
  • Length: 254.5 in (6.46 m)
  • Explosive charge: 750 lb (340 kg) Torpex
  • Range and speed: Unknown, above 40 kn (74 km/h)

Mark 20 Bidder

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21-inch Mark 20
 
A Mark 20 torpedo exhibit at the Clandestine Immigration and Naval Museum, Haifa, Israel.
TypeTorpedo
Place of originUnited Kingdom
Service history
In service1955–1988
Used byRN
Production history
Designed1945
Specifications
Mass1,810 lb (820 kg)
Length13.5 ft (4.11 m)
Diameter21 in (530 mm)
WarheadTorpex
Warhead weight196 lb (89 kg)
EngineElectric
PropellantBattery (perchloric acid)
Operational
range
12,000 yd (11,000 m) (Mark 20S), 14,000 yd (13,000 m) (Mark 20I)
Maximum speed 20 kn (37 km/h)
Guidance
system
Passive sonar

The Mark 20 was a passive-seeker battery-powered torpedo which was initially conceived in 1945, as a 21-inch development of the 18-inch "Dealer" project for a parachute-dropped ASW weapon, conceived in 1943.[16] At the end of the Second World War the "Dealer" project was renamed "Dealer A" and became further branched out into the 21-inch "Bidder" and 18-inch "Dealer B" projects.[17] Thus, the Mark 20 was developed alongside the 18-inch Mark 30 Dealer B and shared elements of its design.[18] The development program was elevated in scope and priority after the cancellation of the Mark 21 Pentane. Two variants were developed: the Mark 20S ("Submarine") for use by submarines, and a larger Mark 20E ("Escort") for use by surface ships. The S variant had a single speed of 20 knots, and the E variant had a dual-speed mode of 15 knots and 24 knots, for target search and subsequent autonomously-switched attack run.[19] In the E configuration, the torpedo was designed to have a total endurance of 20,000 yd (18,000 m) at the 15 knot speed, and 6,000 yd (5,500 m) upon switching to the 24 knot speed.[20] A total of 75 units of the Mark 20E were produced, with trial samples being distributed to the Type 12, Type 14, and Type 15 classes of frigates. As of 1958, the E variant was still not ready for service due to problems with its programming, and the prospect of a medium-range ASW torpedo being carried by the upcoming Westland Wasp helicopter was deemed more desirable. The deficient speed of the Mark 20 was also a motivating factor. As a result, the E variant project was eliminated, leaving only the S variant. This led to several of the frigates that were intended to have used them (Rothesay and Whitby classes) never being fitted with torpedo tubes or having them removed. As of 1959, the only destroyer class projected to carry the Mark 20 was the Leander,[21] but as of 1963, this design consideration would also be eliminated.[22] The final version of the Mark 20 Bidder was referred to as the Mark 20 Improved.[23] The Mark 20 Improved entered service in 1971, originally developed by Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering as an export version. It featured weight reductions to its synchromechanisms and the contra-rotating propeller gearing, and the earlier mechanical course and depth setting devices were replaced by electronic ones, receiving data from the launch console via an umbilical link. These improvements, together with new batteries common to the Mark 23, slightly increased torpedo endurance.[24]

In 1965, Captain John Moore of the Royal Navy developed a variant of the Mark 20 which he dubbed "Archimedes". This was an underwater, submarine-launched, equipment delivery vehicle designed to support clandestine operations, particularly those of the frogmen of the Special Boat Service.[25] The warhead was removed and replaced with a sealed cargo capsule. Like other such vehicles of the type, the "Archimedes" could beach itself in a controlled manner, allowing frogmen or other clandestine agents to open the capsule and retrieve its contents. The vehicle could also be directly piloted by a frogman, with variable speeds, functioning as an underwater tug and diver propulsion vehicle. The prototype of the "Archimedes" was a larger Mark 23 torpedo, but the series-production version utilized a Mark 20 body.[26] Captain John Moore was quoted as referring to the Mark 20 as "a useless device for its original task".[27]

The Mark 20 was the only torpedo in service which could fit the short stern launch tubes of the Oberon and Porpoise-class submarines. It remained in the submarine service until 1988, which is when the Porpoise class were retired.[28] Following experience in the 1982 Falklands War, when an armed Mark 20 became stuck inside its tube and HMS Onyx was forced to return to Portsmouth to have it removed, the Oberon class would relegate the stern launch tubes for storing beer, retiring the Mark 20 sooner.[29]

Mark 21 Pentane

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A project for an autonomous active sonar ASW torpedo to be carried by the Avro Lancaster, Avro Shackleton, Short Sturgeon and Fairey Gannet aircraft in an anti-submarine role, originally conceived in 1947.[30][31] Development commenced in 1949, and a final design was selected in 1954, delivering functional prototypes with a speed of 30 knots. By this time several of the aircraft capable of carrying a 21-inch torpedo were in the process of being withdrawn from service. Following the 1957 Defence White Paper, which de-emphasized the role of aircraft carriers, the RAF Coastal Command was left as the sole operator and the project was cancelled in 1958 due to cost considerations and an assessment that the weapon lacked the speed to counter upcoming nuclear submarine designs. The seeker head development was transferred to Project Ongar, which would later become the Mark 24 Tigerfish.[32]

Mark 22 Mackle

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A wire-guided version of the Mark 20 separately developed by Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering (VSEL) as a private venture. The project was cancelled in 1956, but the wire guidance technology was transferred to the Mark 20 Bidder, contributing to the development of the Mark 23 Grog.[33]

Mark 23 Grog

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21-inch Mark 23
 
A Mark 23 torpedo repainted as an advertisement in front of The Ancient Mariner restaurant in Lynmouth, United Kingdom.
TypeTorpedo
Place of originUnited Kingdom
Service history
In service1966–1987
Used byRN
Production history
Designed1956
Specifications
Mass2,000 lb (907 kg)
Length14.9 ft (4.54 m)
Diameter21 in (530 mm)
WarheadTorpex
Warhead weight196 lb (89 kg)
EngineElectric
PropellantBattery (perchloric acid)
Operational
range
12,000 yd (11,000 m) low-speed, 8,900 yd (8,100 m) high-speed
Maximum speed 20 kn (37 km/h) low-speed, 28 kn (52 km/h) high-speed
Guidance
system
Passive sonar, Wire guided

A wire-guided version of the Mark 20 with a dual-speed mode, for target approach and attack run.[34][35] Wire guidance had been worked on for the "Bidder" project from its inception, and the earliest prototypes of the "Grog" were available for testing in 1955. After the "Mackle" project was cancelled in 1956, the complex wire guidance system was transferred to the "Grog" program. This would be simplified, improved, and the first production units of the Mark 23 Grog were delivered in 1959.[36] The Mark 23 was fitted with a 10,000 m (11,000 yd) outboard dispenser that contained a control wire to guide the weapon. Wire guidance was optional, with the control wire spool being a separate module which remained inside the launch tube. An operator onboard the submarine would listen to the torpedo's hydrophones, guiding the weapon past decoys and countermeasures.[37] Entered service in 1966 although already obsolescent,[38] considering the common speeds of nuclear-propelled submarines of the era. According to one report, the weapon did not become fully operational until 1971,[39] and served until 1987, which is when all stocks of the Mark 24 Tigerfish were converted to Mod 2.

During the trials phase of the Mark 23, in 1965, Captain John Moore of the Royal Navy experimented with a sample of the torpedo body. Royal Navy engineers aboard the submarine depot ship HMS Medway (former HMS LCT 1109) modified the torpedo body to his specifications, into a human torpedo prototype, with the primary function of an underwater tug. Supplementary batteries were added, increasing the vehicle's range. Ultimately the Mark 20 torpedo body would be selected for a similar vehicle, which went into series production.[40]

During 1973, all of the RN torpedoes had to be taken out of service as the control system was failing at extreme range.[citation needed]

After months of investigation, it was discovered that the fault lay in the Guidance Unit made by GEC. A germanium diode in the automatic gain control (AGC) circuit had been replaced by a silicon diode, following an instruction by RN stores that all germanium diodes had to be replaced by more modern silicon diodes. The silicon diode's different characteristics caused the AGC circuit to fail. Once the mistake was found, replacing the diode with the original type cured the problem.

Mark 24 Tigerfish

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Main article: Mark 24 Tigerfish

The Mark 24 Tigerfish was a high-speed, long-range, wire-guided torpedo originally developed under Project Ongar. The staff requirement for this weapon was written in 1959[41] and the weapon was expected to enter service in the mid-1960s, with an in-service target date of 1969.[42] Initial production rounds were delivered in 1974, and a production order was made in 1977. Affected by the budgetary constraints of the 1966 Defence White Paper, the first Tigerfish (Mod 0) entered deployment in 1983. All variants of the Tigerfish were removed from service in 2004.

The Mark 24 Tigerfish had a protracted development program, beginning with the initial two models, then studies to tackle its deficiencies, and finally a Marconi Consolidation Program (nicknamed "Get Well") undertaken in the late 1980s to convert existing units to the Mod 2 standard.

  • Mark 24 Mod 0 Tigerfish (1974)
  • Mark 24 Mod 1 Tigerfish (1978)
  • Mark 24(N) Tigerfish (nuclear payload variant, paper study only)
  • Mark 24 Mod 2 Tigerfish (1987)
  • Mark 24 Mod 3 Tigerfish (simplified inexpensive version, paper study only)

Despite the highly problematic development program of the Tigerfish, Britain would repeatedly decline American offers of the Mark 48. As an example, in February 1980, the United States would offer Britain a free coproduction license for the Mark 48, together with classified new manufacturing processes, and contracts for £‎150 million worth of purchases of the torpedo thus manufactured. This too was declined.[43]

Spearfish

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Main article: Spearfish torpedo

Much more capable than Tigerfish. Deployed from 1992, and replacing all Tigerfish by 2004.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ The Dreadnought Project. "Beagle Class Destroyer (1909)". www.dreadnoughtproject.org/tfs/index.php.
  2. ^ DiGiulian, Tony. "Pre-World War II Torpedoes of the United Kingdom/Britain". www.navweaps.com.
  3. ^ The Dreadnought Project. "21-in Mark I Torpedo (UK)". www.dreadnoughtproject.org/tfs/index.php.
  4. ^ DiGiulian, Tony. "Pre-World War II Torpedoes of the United Kingdom/Britain". www.navweaps.com.
  5. ^ The Dreadnought Project. "21-in Mark IV Torpedo (UK)". www.dreadnoughtproject.org/tfs/index.php.
  6. ^ Campbell, John (1985). Naval Weapons of World War Two. Naval Institute Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-87021-459-4.
  7. ^ "21 inch Mk VIII** Torpedo (sectioned)". Imperial War Museums. Retrieved 22 June 2024.
  8. ^ DiGiulian, Tony. "World War II Torpedoes of the United Kingdom/Britain – NavWeaps". www.navweaps.com. Archived from the original on 21 February 2009.
  9. ^ Brown, Colin; Kim Sengupta (3 April 2012). "Sinking the Belgrano: the Pinochet connection". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 23 June 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
  10. ^ Campbell, John (1985). Naval Weapons of World War Two. Naval Institute Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-87021-459-4.
  11. ^ Andrew, Doty (2013). White Ensign (2nd ed.). Admiralty Trilogy Group. p. 67.
  12. ^ DiGiulian, Tony. "World War II Torpedoes of the United Kingdom/Britain – NavWeaps". www.navweaps.com. Archived from the original on 21 February 2009.
  13. ^ Kirby, Geoff (March 1972). JRNSS Volume 27, No.2 - A History of the Torpedo, Part 3. Journal of the Royal Navy Scientific Service. p. 100.
  14. ^ Hennessy, Peter; Jinks, James (2015). The Silent Deep: The Royal Navy Submarine Service Since 1945. Penguin Books. p. 160-161.
  15. ^ DiGiulian, Tony. "Post-World War II Torpedoes of the United Kingdom/Britain". www.navweaps.com.
  16. ^ Kirby, Geoff (March 1972). JRNSS Volume 27, No.2 - A History of the Torpedo, Part 3. Journal of the Royal Navy Scientific Service. p. 91.
  17. ^ Kirby, Geoff (March 1972). JRNSS Volume 27, No.2 - A History of the Torpedo, Part 3. Journal of the Royal Navy Scientific Service. p. 98-99.
  18. ^ Friedman, Norman (1986). The Postwar Naval Revolution. Naval Institute Press. p. 79. ISBN 0-87021-952-9.
  19. ^ Llewelyn-Jones, Malcolm (2005). The Royal Navy, 1930-2000; excerpt, The Royal Navy and the Challenge of the Fast Submarine, 1944-1954. Frank Cass. p. 168. ISBN 0-714-65710-7.
  20. ^ Llewelyn-Jones, Malcolm (2005). The Royal Navy, 1930-2000; excerpt, The Royal Navy and the Challenge of the Fast Submarine, 1944-1954. Frank Cass. p. 169. ISBN 0-714-65710-7.
  21. ^ Friedman, Norman (2006). British Destroyers & Frigates. Chatham Publishing. p. 250. ISBN 1-86176-137-6.
  22. ^ Friedman, Norman (2006). British Destroyers & Frigates. Chatham Publishing. p. 268. ISBN 1-86176-137-6.
  23. ^ Richardson, Douglas (1986). Naval Armament. Naval Institute Press. p. 120. ISBN 0-531-03738-X.
  24. ^ Preston, Antony (1981). "From Fancy to Stingray, British Torpedoes Since 1945". Warship. Vol. 5. Conway Maritime Press. p. 195-196. ISBN 0-87021-980-4.
  25. ^ Hennessy, Peter; Jinks, James (2015). The Silent Deep: The Royal Navy Submarine Service Since 1945. Penguin Books. p. 288.
  26. ^ Parker, John (1997). SBS: The Inside Story of the Special Boat Service. Headline Book Publishing. p. 172-173. ISBN 0-7472-1976-1.
  27. ^ The Daily Telegraph (23 August 2010). "Captain John Moore (obituary)". www.telegraph.co.uk.
  28. ^ Hennessy, Peter; Jinks, James (2015). The Silent Deep: The Royal Navy Submarine Service Since 1945. Penguin Books. p. 304-305.
  29. ^ Chris Bishop and Tony Cullen (1988). The Encyclopedia of World Sea Power. Crescent Books. p. 42. ISBN 0517653427.
  30. ^ Kirby, Geoff (March 1972). JRNSS Volume 27, No.2 - A History of the Torpedo, Part 3. Journal of the Royal Navy Scientific Service. p. 99.
  31. ^ Friedman, Norman (1986). The Postwar Naval Revolution. Naval Institute Press. p. 79. ISBN 0-87021-952-9.
  32. ^ "United Kingdom Aerospace and Weapons Projects - Guided Weapons". n.d. Archived from the original on 1 June 2009.
  33. ^ Friedman, Norman (1986). The Postwar Naval Revolution. Naval Institute Press. p. 200. ISBN 0-87021-952-9.
  34. ^ Andrew, Doty (2013). White Ensign (2nd ed.). Admiralty Trilogy Group. p. 67.
  35. ^ Richardson, Douglas (1986). Naval Armament. Naval Institute Press. p. 120. ISBN 0-531-03738-X.
  36. ^ Kirby, Geoff (March 1972). JRNSS Volume 27, No.2 - A History of the Torpedo, Part 3. Journal of the Royal Navy Scientific Service. p. 99-100.
  37. ^ Hennessy, Peter; Jinks, James (2015). The Silent Deep: The Royal Navy Submarine Service Since 1945. Penguin Books. p. 162.
  38. ^ Hennessy, Peter; Jinks, James (2015). The Silent Deep: The Royal Navy Submarine Service Since 1945. Penguin Books. p. 304-305.
  39. ^ Grove, Eric (1987). Vanguard to Trident; British Naval Policy Since World War II. Naval Institute Press. p. 227. ISBN 0-87021-552-3.
  40. ^ Parker, John (1997). SBS: The Inside Story of the Special Boat Service. Headline Book Publishing. p. 172-173. ISBN 0-7472-1976-1.
  41. ^ Friedman, Norman (1986). The Postwar Naval Revolution. Naval Institute Press. p. 79. ISBN 0-87021-952-9.
  42. ^ Richardson, Douglas (1986). Naval Armament. Naval Institute Press. p. 120. ISBN 0-531-03738-X.
  43. ^ Humble, Richard (1981). Submarines, The Illustrated History. Basinghall Books. p. 176. ISBN 1-11468-416-3.

References

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