Ambon (formerly Dutch: Amboina) is the capital and largest city of the Indonesian province of Maluku. This city is also known as Ambon Manise, which means "beautiful" or "pretty" Ambon in the Ambonese language. It covers a land area of 359.45 km2, and had a population of 331,254 at the 2010 Census[2] and 347,288 at the 2020 Census;[3] the official estimate as at mid 2023 was 354,052.[1] The city is divided into five administrative districts (kecamatan) – namely Nusaniwe, Sirimau, Teluk Ambon (Ambon Bay), Baguala (officially Teluk Ambon Baguala) and Leitimur Selatan (South Leitimur). Known as Indonesia's music city,[4][5][6] Ambon became the first city in Southeast Asia to be recognised as the UNESCO City of Music in 2019.[7]
Ambon | |
|---|---|
| City of Ambon Kota Ambon | |
governor office of Maluku | |
 Coat of arms | |
| Motto: Bersatu Manggurebe Maju | |
 Location within Maluku | |
OpenStreetMap  | |
  Ambon Location in Maluku and Indonesia  Ambon Ambon (Indonesia) | |
| Coordinates: 3°41′48″S 128°10′42″E / 3.69667°S 128.17833°E | |
| Country |  Indonesia |
| Region | Maluku |
| Province |  Maluku |
| Incorporated | 7 September 1575 |
| Government | |
| • Mayor | Bodewin Wattimena |
| Area | |
• Total | 359.45 km2 (138.78 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 3 m (10 ft) |
| Population (mid 2023 estimate) | |
• Total | 354,052 |
| • Density | 980/km2 (2,600/sq mi) |
| [1] | |
| Area code | (+62) 911 |
| Website | ambon.go.id |
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The city is populated by a mix of ethnic Alifuru (original Moluccans), Javanese, Balinese, Butonese, Bugis, Makassar, Papuan, Minahasa, Minang, Flobamora (Flores, Sumba, Alor and Timor ethnics) and those of foreign descent (Chinese, Arabian-Ambonese, Spanish-Ambonese, German-Ambonese, Portuguese-Ambonese and Dutch-Ambonese). Between 1999 and 2002, there was social unrest motivated by racial intolerance.
History
editColonial era
edit
Ambon was colonized by Portugal in 1526 and originally named Nossa Senhora de Anunciada, founded by Portuguese-Moluccan Governor Sancho de Vasconcelos. The Portuguese were driven out by the Dutch in 1605. Except for brief periods of British rule, the island remained under Dutch control until Indonesia's independence in 1945.
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During the Dutch period, Ambon was the seat of the Dutch resident and military commander of the Maluku Islands. The town was protected by Fort Victoria, and the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica characterized it as "a clean little town with wide streets, well planted".[8] The population was divided into two classes, orang burger (citizens) and orang negri (villagers), the former being a class of native origin enjoying certain privileges conferred on their ancestors by the old Dutch East India Company. There were also, besides the Dutch, some Arabs, Chinese and a few Portuguese settlers. Ambon was a center of Christian missionary activity, and Ambon and the surrounding islands have many Christians as well as the Muslims that predominate in most of Indonesia.
On 22 December 1902, the Apostolic Prefecture of Dutch New Guinea was established in the city, later to be promoted as the Diocese of Amboina.
Ambon Island was the site of a major Dutch naval base and was of strategic importance during WW2. In 1941, Dutch forces with the assistance of Australian forces reinforced Ambon in anticipation of a Japanese attack.[9] Japanese forces attacked Ambon as part of their attack on the Dutch East Indies. Despite formidable defenses, Ambon fell when its defenders surrendered after four days of fighting on 3 February 1942.[10] Following the battle, Japanese forces committed numerous acts of atrocities, including the execution of over 300 Dutch and Australian POWs at Laha airfield.[11]
Conflicts since independence
editIn 1950 Ambon was the center of an uprising against Indonesian rule, caused by the self-proclaimed Republic of the South Moluccas. Indonesian troops invaded the city during the Invasion of Ambon and reasserted control in just a few months. Many important buildings such as the Victoria Fort (APRMS main base) were heavily damaged during the confrontation.
In April and May 1958 during the Permesta rebellion in North Sulawesi, the USA supported and supplied the rebels. Pilots from a Taiwan-based CIA front organisation, Civil Air Transport, flying CIA B-26 Invader aircraft, repeatedly bombed and machine-gunned targets in and around Ambon. On 27 April a CIA raid set fire to a military command post, a fuel dump and a Royal Dutch Shell complex.[12] The attack on Shell was deliberate: the CIA had orders to hit foreign commercial interests in order to drive foreign trade away from Indonesia and undermine its economy.[13] The next day, the same CIA pilot bombed Shell interests at Balikpapan in East Kalimantan on Borneo, which persuaded Shell to suspend tanker services from there.[14]
On 28 April a CIA air raid damaged an Indonesian Army barracks next to a marketplace.[15] On 30 April a CIA air raid hit the airstrip.[16] On 7 May a CIA air raid attacked Ambon airstrip, seriously damaging a Douglas C-47 Skytrain and an Indonesian Air Force North American P-51 Mustang and setting fire to a number of fuel drums.[17] On 8 May a CIA B-26 tried to bomb an Indonesian Navy gunboat in Ambon harbour.[18] Its bomb missed but it then machine-gunned the boat, wounding two crew.[18] The Indonesian National Armed Forces reinforced Ambon City's anti-aircraft defences with a number of 12.7 mm (0.5 in) machine guns.[18] On 9 May a CIA B-26 attacked the city again.[18] The machine-gunners returned fire and an Indonesian Air Force P-51 Mustang chased the B-26, but it escaped.[18]
On 15 May a CIA B-26 attacked a small ship, the Naiko, in Ambon Bay.[19] The Naiko was a merchant ship that the Indonesian Government had pressed into military service, and she was bringing a company of Ambonese troops home from East Java.[20] A CIA bomb hit the Naiko's engine room, killing one crew member and 16 infantrymen[20] and setting the ship on fire.[19] The B-26 then attacked Ambon city, aiming for the barracks. Its first bomb missed and exploded in a market-place next door.[19] The next landed in the barracks compound but bounced and exploded near an ice factory.[19] The B-26 in the May air raids was flown by a CAT pilot called Allen Pope.[20] On 18 May Pope attacked Ambon again. First he raided the airstrip again, destroying the C-47 and P-51 that he had damaged on 7 May.[21] Then he flew west of the city and tried to attack one of a pair of troop ships being escorted by the Indonesian Navy.[22] Indonesian forces shot down the B-26 but Pope and his Indonesian radio operator survived and were captured.[23] Pope's capture immediately exposed the level of CIA support for the Permesta rebellion. Embarrassed, the Eisenhower administration quickly ended CIA support for Permesta and withdrew its agents and remaining aircraft from the conflict.[24]
As part of the transmigration program in the 1980s, the Suharto government relocated many migrants, most of them Muslim, from densely overpopulated Java.[citation needed]
Between 1999 and 2002, Ambon was at the centre of sectarian conflict across the Maluku Islands.[25][26] There was further religious violence in 2011.[27]
Geography and climate
editTopography
editMost of the land area can be classified as hilly to steeply sloping, while 17% of the land area can be classified as more flat or shallow-sloped.
Climate
editAmbon experiences a tropical rainforest climate (Af) according to Köppen Climate Classification as there is no real dry season. The driest month is November with total precipitation of 114 mm (4.5 in), while the wettest month is June with total precipitation of 638 mm (25.1 in). As it is located near the equator, the temperature throughout the year is constant. The hottest month is December, with an average temperature of 27.2 °C (81.0 °F), while the coolest month is July, with an average temperature 25.0 °C (77.0 °F).[28]
| Climate data for Ambon, Maluku, Indonesia (Extremes: 1912-1936) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 35.5 (95.9) |
35.5 (95.9) |
35.0 (95.0) |
33.9 (93.0) |
32.3 (90.1) |
30.5 (86.9) |
30.0 (86.0) |
30.5 (86.9) |
31.1 (88.0) |
32.8 (91.0) |
34.4 (93.9) |
35.5 (95.9) |
35.5 (95.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 31.3 (88.3) |
31.4 (88.5) |
31.1 (88.0) |
30.7 (87.3) |
29.8 (85.6) |
28.5 (83.3) |
27.5 (81.5) |
27.8 (82.0) |
29.1 (84.4) |
30.3 (86.5) |
31.1 (88.0) |
31.5 (88.7) |
30.0 (86.0) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 27.0 (80.6) |
27.0 (80.6) |
26.9 (80.4) |
26.7 (80.1) |
26.4 (79.5) |
25.6 (78.1) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.1 (77.2) |
25.7 (78.3) |
26.5 (79.7) |
27.0 (80.6) |
27.2 (81.0) |
26.3 (79.3) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 24.1 (75.4) |
24.1 (75.4) |
23.8 (74.8) |
23.9 (75.0) |
24.0 (75.2) |
23.6 (74.5) |
23.2 (73.8) |
23.1 (73.6) |
23.3 (73.9) |
23.8 (74.8) |
24.1 (75.4) |
24.2 (75.6) |
23.8 (74.8) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 22.2 (72.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
22.2 (72.0) |
21.6 (70.9) |
20.0 (68.0) |
20.5 (68.9) |
20.0 (68.0) |
19.4 (66.9) |
18.9 (66.0) |
18.9 (66.0) |
21.1 (70.0) |
20.0 (68.0) |
18.9 (66.0) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 127 (5.0) |
119 (4.7) |
135 (5.3) |
279 (11.0) |
516 (20.3) |
638 (25.1) |
602 (23.7) |
401 (15.8) |
241 (9.5) |
155 (6.1) |
114 (4.5) |
132 (5.2) |
3,459 (136.2) |
| Average rainy days | 12 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 19 | 21 | 22 | 21 | 16 | 10 | 10 | 13 | 181 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 79 | 80 | 83 | 85 | 87 | 86 | 85 | 84 | 83 | 81 | 80 | 82 | 83 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 192 | 186 | 211 | 177 | 158 | 120 | 115 | 112 | 150 | 192 | 219 | 202 | 2,034 |
| Source 1: Deutscher Wetterdienst[28] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute[29] | |||||||||||||
Administrative districts
edit
The city is divided into five districts (kecamatan), tabulated below with their areas and their 2010 Census[2] and 2020 Census populations,[3] together with the official estimates as at mid 2023.[1] The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, the number of administrative villages in each district (totaling 20 urban kelurahan, 20 negari and 10 rural desa), and its post codes.
| Kode Wilayah |
Name of District (kecamatan) |
Area in km2 |
Pop'n Census 2010 |
Pop'n Census 2020 |
Pop'n Estimate mid 2023 |
Admin centre |
No. of villages |
Post code |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 81.71.01 | Nusaniwe | 88.35 | 89,866 | 90,250 | 91,415 | Amahusu | 13 (a) | 97114 - 97118 |
| 81.71.02 | Sirimau | 86.81 | 140,064 | 146,426 | 147,996 | Karang Panjang | 14 (b) | 97121 - 97129 |
| 81.71.03 | Teluk Ambon Baguala | 40.11 | 53,472 | 57,591 | 60,022 | Passo | 7 (c) | 97231 - 97233 |
| 81.71.04 | Teluk Ambon (Ambon Bay) |
93.68 | 38,451 | 43,363 | 44,525 | Wayame | 8 (d) | 97233 - 97237 |
| 81.71.05 | Leitimur Selatan (South Leitimur) |
50.50 | 9,401 | 9,658 | 10,094 | Leahari | 8 (e) | 97129 & 97237 |
Notes: (a) comprising 8 kelurahan and 5 negeri. (b) comprising 10 kelurahan, 3 negeri and one desa.
(c) comprising 1 kelurahan, 2 negeri and 4 desa. (d) comprising 1 kelurahan, 2 negeri and 5 desa. (e) all negeri.
Like other regions in the (Maluku Islands), areas in Ambon are still considered to have the status of states, led by kings and queens.
| District | States |
|---|---|
| Nusaniwe | Urimessing, Benteng, Wainitu, Kudamati, Waihaong, Manggadua, Nusanive, Amahusu, Latuhalat, Seilale |
| Sirimau | Waihoka, Amantelu, Rijali, Karangpanjang, Batumeja, Batugajah, Ahusen, Honipopu, Uritetu, Pandankasturi, Galala, Hative, Batumerah, Soya |
| Teluk Ambon Baguala | Waiheru, Nania, Negrilama, Passo, Lateri, Latta, Halong |
| Teluk Ambon (Ambon Bay) |
Laha, Tawiri, Greater Hative, Wayame, Rumatiga, Tihu, Poka, Hunuth |
| South Leitimor | Hatalai, Naku, Kilang, Ema, Hukurila, Hutumuri, Rutong, Leahari |
Nusanive
editNusanive District consists of the western part of the Leitimur Peninsula. The eight urban kelurahan form part of the built-up area of Ambon city in the centre of the north shore of that peninsula, while the eight negeri (desa) consist of the more rural areas to the west and south of that core. Three of these negeri have the same names as kelurahan in the core.
| Kode Wilayah |
Name of kelurahan or desa |
Area in km2 |
Pop'n Estimate mid 2022[30] |
Post code |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 81.71.01.2001 | Neg. Latuhalat | 13.00 | 9,312 | 97118 |
| 81.71.01.2002 | Neg. Seilale | 2.41 | 1,532 | 97118 |
| 81.71.01.2003 | Neg. Nusanive | 16.00 | 5,658 | 97117 |
| 81.71.01.2004 | Neg. Amahusu | 8.00 | 5,522 | 97117 |
| 81.71.01.2005 | Neg. Urimessing | 46.16 | 7,249 | 97113 |
| 81.71.01.1006 | Kel. Nusanive | 16.00 | 6,084 | 97117 |
| 81.71.01.1007 | Kel. Wainitu | 0.30 | 8,846 | 97115 |
| 81.71.01.1008 | Kel. Benteng | 0.87 | 15,247 | 97117 |
| 81.71.01.1009 | Kel. Kudamati | 0.67 | 14,531 | 97116 |
| 81.71.01.1010 | Kel. Mangga Dua | 8.00 | 3,181 | 97114 |
| 81.71.01.1011 | Kel. Urimessing | 0.27 | 4,754 | 97113 |
| 81.71.01.1012 | Kel. Waihaong | 0.15 | 4,894 | 97112 |
| 81.71.01.1013 | Kel. Seilale | 0.18 | 3,443 | 97111 |
Sirimau
editSirimau District consists of the north-central part of the Leitimur Peninsula, and thus equates roughly to the core of the Ambon city built-up area.
| Kode Wilayah |
Name of kelurahan or desa |
Area in km2 |
Pop'n Estimate mid 2022[31] |
Post code |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 81.71.01.2001 | Neg. Hative Kecil | 1.53 | 12,470 | 97128 |
| 81.71.02.2002 | Desa Galala | 0.12 | 1,720 | 97128 |
| 81.71.02.2003 | Neg. Batu Merah | 16.67 | 73,279 | 97128 |
| 81.71.02.2009 | Neg. Soya | 55.65 | 10,253 | 97129 |
| 81.71.02.1010 | Ke1. Pandan Kasturi | 4.00 | 7,809 | 97128 |
| 81.71.02.1011 | Kel. Rijali | 0.28 | 7,583 | 97123 |
| 81.71.02.1012 | Kel. Amantelu | 1.15 | 8,436 | 97122 |
| 81.71.02.1013 | Kel. Karang Panjang | 0.43 | 7,458 | 97121 |
| 81.71.02.1014 | Kel. Waihoka | 0.75 | 5,254 | 97129 |
| 81.71.02.1015 | Kel. Batu Meja | 0.85 | 10,754 | 97125 |
| 81.71.02.1016 | Kel. Batu Gajah | 0.45 | 7,222 | 97127 |
| 81.71.02.1017 | Kel. Uritetu | 0.35 | 5,938 | 97124 |
| 81.71.02.1018 | Kel. Honipopu | 0.34 | 5,526 | 97126 |
| 81.71.02.1019 | Kel. Ahusen | 0.24 | 4,038 | 97127 |
Teluk Ambon Baguala or simply Baguala
editTeluk Ambon Baguala District (usually shortened to Baguala District) consists of the northeastern part of the Leitimur Peninsula, together with the isthmus connecting it to the main (Leihitu) portion of the island and the adjoining part of Leihitu.
| Kode Wilayah |
Name of kelurahan or desa |
Area in km2 |
Pop'n Estimate mid 2023[32] |
Post code |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 81.71.03.2001 | Neg. Passo | 11.38 | 21,957 | 97232 |
| 81.71.03.2002 | Neg. Halong | 16.00 | 10,935 | 97231 |
| 81.71.03.2003 | Desa Latta | 0.10 | 1,952 | 97231 |
| 81.71.03.2004 | Desa Negeri Lama | 4.50 | 1,793 | 97232 |
| 81.71.03.2005 | Desa Nania | 0.12 | 4,519 | 97232 |
| 81.71.03.2006 | Desa Waiheru | 6.00 | 12,809 | 97233 |
| 81.71.03.1018 | Kel. Lateri | 2.01 | 6,057 | 97231 |
Teluk Ambon
editTeluk Ambon District consists entirely of a portion of Leihitu (and thus not including any part of the Leitimur Peninsula), and faces the core area of the city across Ambon Bay.
| Kode Wilayah |
Name of kelurahan or desa |
Area in km2 |
Pop'n Estimate mid 2021[33] |
Post code |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 81.71.04.2001 | Desa Hunuth (Durian Patah) | 2.00 | 3,800 | 97233 |
| 81.71.04.2002 | Desa Poka | 2.78 | 5,290 | 97233 |
| 81.71.04.2003 | Neg. Rumah Tiga | 28.39 | 10,455 | 97234 |
| 81.71.04.2004 | Desa Wayame | 7.50 | 7,293 | 97234 |
| 81.71.04.2005 | Neg. Tawire | 5.68 | 6,774 | 97235 |
| 81.71.04.2006 | Neg. Hative Besar | 30.00 | 6,949 | 97234 |
| 81.71.04.2007 | Neg. Laha | 17.00 | 6,833 | 97236 |
| 81.71.04.2008 | Kel. Tihu | 0.33 | 1,364 | 97237 |
Leitimur Selatan
editLeitimur Selatan District consists of the southeastern and eastern parts of the Leitimur Peninsula.
| Kode Wilayah |
Name of kelurahan or desa |
Area in km2 |
Pop'n Estimate mid 2021[34] |
Post code |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 81.71.05.2001 | Neg. Hukurila | 7.50 | 680 | 97129 |
| 81.71.05.2002 | Neg. Ema | 3.00 | 730 | 97129 |
| 81.71.05.2003 | Neg. Kilang | 5.00 | 802 | 97129 |
| 81.71.05.2004 | Neg. Naku | 5.00 | 756 | 97129 |
| 81.71.05.2005 | Neg. Hatalai | 5.00 | 1,131 | 97129 |
| 81.71.05.2006 | Neg. Hutumuri | 15.00 | 4,741 | 97237 |
| 81.71.05.2007 | Neg. Rutong | 5.00 | 896 | 97237 |
| 81.71.05.1008 | Neg. Leahari | 5.00 | 715 | 97237 |
Religion
editBased on the 2010 census, the city was populated by 331,254 people; in the 2020 Census, this had reached 348,288 people, and the official estimate was 354,052 as at mid 2023.[1] In 2010, the religious breakdown in Ambon was 60.78% Christians (with 58.37% being Protestants and 2.41% Catholics), 39.02% Muslims and 3% others.
Economy
editEconomic growth rate of Ambon City in 2014 was 5.96%. Gross Domestic Regional Product in 2014 both at current market price and at constant market price was increasing gradually. The increase, if compared to 2013 GDRP at current market price equal to 12.76 percent and 5.96 percent for GDRP at constant market price. The GDRP at current market price in Ambon 2014 was equal to Rp.9.9 trillion, whereas for GDRP at constant 2010 market price, it was equal to Rp.7.77 trillion.[35]
In 2014, the gross domestic product per capita of Ambon based on current prices grew by 8.3 percent, while for the constant price in Ambon City grew by 1.7 percent. GDP per capita of Ambon City in 2014 is 25.16 Million (U $1,836.43). The poverty rate in the city of Ambon is 4.42% which is the smallest percentage of poverty in the province of Maluku.[35]
All twenty one economic sectors in 2014 saw positive growth for GDRP of Ambon. For GDRP at current market price, the highest contribution was provided by the electricity and gas Sector with 34.2 percent, while the lowest was human health and Social Work activities with 6.61 percent.[citation needed]
Education
editThe literacy rate was 99.63% in 2010. However, the school enrollment rate in Ambon City was only 73% in 2010, whereas the national average was 96%. In 2011, the enrollment rates in Ambon City were 98.72% in the primary education level, 95% in junior high, 78% in high school, and 45% in college or university.[citation needed]
Currently, the city has 17 higher education institutions. These are:
State-owned institutions
- Pattimura University
- Ambon State Polytechnic
Private Institutions
- College of Protestant Christianity Ambon
- Trinity College of Administrative Sciences
- Abdul Aziz Kataloka College of Administrative Sciences
- Rutu Nusa College of Economics Management
- Pasapua College of Health
- University of Darussalam Ambon
- Christian University of Indonesia Maluku
- Maritime Academy Maluku
- Caritas Secretary and Management Academy
- Ambon College of Computer Sciences
- Indonesian Islamic Religion Institute Ambon
- Industrial Academy ( AKPER RUKMIT ) Ambon
- Evangelical Theology College Indonesia
- Bethel Theology College Ambon
- St. Yohanes College Ambon
Places of interest
edit
- Merah Putih Bridge
- Monument of Pattimura, Lapangan Merdeka
- Monument of Christina Martha Tiahahu, Karang Panjang
- Pattimura Stadium
- Ambon Plaza
- Liang beach
- Natsepa beach
- Santai Beach Resort
- Pintu Kota beach
- Galala-Poka Ferry crossing
- Batu Merah
- Ambon Bay at sunset
- Museum Siwalima at Batu Capeu
- Pukul Sapu Dance at Morela and Mamala (after seven days of Muslim's Eid al-Fitri)
- Siwang Paradise[36]
Transportation
editAmbon is served by Pattimura International Airport.
Twin towns – sister cities
edit
Darwin, Australia
Vlissingen, Netherlands
References
edit- ^ a b c d Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 28 February 2024, Kota Ambon Dalam Angka 2024 (Katalog-BPS 1102001.8171)
- ^ a b Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011.
- ^ a b Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021.
- ^ "Bekraf canangkan Ambon kota musik dunia". 28 July 2016. Archived from the original on 18 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
- ^ "Menuju Kota Musik Dunia, Ketua DPR RI Resmikan Dua Gedung Musik di Ambon | TERASMALUKU.COM | Semua Membacanya". Archived from the original on 18 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
- ^ "Lantik DPD PAPPRI, Tantowi Yahya Akui Ambon Kota Musik". 27 May 2013. Archived from the original on 18 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
- ^ "UNESCO designates 66 new Creative Cities | Creative Cities Network". Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
- ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Koninklijke Nederlands Indonesisch Leger 1948, pp. 284.
- ^ Wigmore 1957, p. 434.
- ^ Klemen 2000.
- ^ Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 115.
- ^ Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 116.
- ^ David Ormsby-Gore, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs (11 June 1958). "Commons Sitting: Oral Answers to Questions – Indonesia (British Vessels)". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). United Kingdom: Commons. col. 202–203. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Archived 1 November 2023 at the Wayback Machine - ^ Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 117.
- ^ Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 118.
- ^ Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 121.
- ^ a b c d e Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 122.
- ^ a b c d Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 129.
- ^ a b c Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 128.
- ^ Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 136.
- ^ Conboy & Morrison 1999, pp. 136–137.
- ^ Conboy & Morrison 1999, pp. 139, 141.
- ^ Conboy & Morrison 1999, p. 143.
- ^ "Ambon rioting leaves 100 dead in Indonesia". World Socialist Website. 30 January 1999. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2006.
- ^ Guerin, Bill (15 February 2002). "The Spice Islands legacy of violence". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 5 March 2002.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Rayda, Nivell (2 October 2011). "Religious Strife a Daily Reality in Ambon". Jakarta Globe. Archived from the original on 24 September 2016.
- ^ a b "Klimatafel von Ambon / Insel Ambon, Molukken / Indonesien" (PDF). Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2016.
- ^ "STATIONSNUMMER 97724" (PDF). Danish Meteorological Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2016.
- ^ Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 28 February 2023, Kecamatan Nusaniwe Dalam Angka 2023 (Katalog-BPS 1102001.8171010)
- ^ Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 28 February 2023, Kecamatan Nusaniwe Dalam Angka 2023 (Katalog-BPS 1102001.8171010)
- ^ Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2024, Kecamatan Teluk Ambon Baguala Dalam Angka 2024 (Katalog-BPS 1102001.8171020)
- ^ Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2022, Kecamatan Teluk Ambon Dalam Angka 2022 (Katalog-BPS 1102001.8171031)
- ^ Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2022, Kecamatan Leitimur Selatan Dalam Angka 2022 (Katalog-BPS 1102001.8171021)
- ^ a b Anonymous.2015. Ambon City in Figures 2015.Indonesia: BPS Ambon Regional Office
- ^ Trimahanani, Emy (22 December 2020). "Siwang Paradise, Wisata Favorit Warga Kota Ambon". Berita Daerah. Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
- ^ "Tak Hanya Darwin, Vlissingen - Belanda Juga Telah jadi Sister City dengan Ambon" (in Indonesian). Tribun Ambon. 30 July 2023. Archived from the original on 20 February 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
Sources
edit- Conboy, Kenneth; Morrison, James (1999). Feet to the Fire CIA Covert Operations in Indonesia, 1957–1958. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-193-9.
- Kahin, Audrey R; Kahin, George McT (1997) [1995]. Subversion as Foreign Policy The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97618-7.
- Klemen, L (2000). "The Carnage at Laha, February 1942". Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2022.[self-published source]
- Koninklijke Nederlands Indonesisch Leger (1948). "Verdediging Van Het Eiland Ambon in Het Jaar 1942" (PDF). Militaire Spectator. 284. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- Wigmore, Lionel (1957). The Japanese Thrust. Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 1 – Army. Vol. 4. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. OCLC 3134219.
External links
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