Wikipedia

African Americans in New York City

(Redirected from African Americans in the New York City metropolitan region)
For African Americans in the state, see African Americans in New York.

African Americans constitute one of the longer-running ethnic presences in New York City, home to the largest urban African American population, and the world's largest Black population of any city outside Africa, by a significant margin.[6] As of the 2010 census, the number of African Americans residing in New York City was over 2 million.[7] The highest concentration of African Americans are in Brooklyn, Harlem, Queens, and The Bronx.[7] New York City is also home to the highest number of immigrants from the Caribbean.[8]

Black New Yorkers
Total population
1.996 million[1] (2020)
Regions with significant populations
Central Harlem, the North Bronx, Central Brooklyn, and southeast Queens[2]
Languages
African American Vernacular English, New York City English, American English, Caribbean English, Jamaican Patois,[3] New York Latino English, Spanish, Dominican Spanish, Cuban Spanish, Puerto Rican Spanish, African languages
Religion
Christianity (Mainly Historically Black Protestant and Catholicism), Judaism, Islam, irreligious,[4] Rastafari
Related ethnic groups
Caribbeans in New York City especially Jamaican Americans in the city, Black Jews in New York City, Puerto Ricans in New York City, Dominicans in New York City, African immigration to the United States
Band rehearsal on 125th Street in Harlem, the historical epicenter of African American culture. New York City is home by a significant margin to the world's largest Black population of any city outside Africa, at over 2.2 million. African immigration is now driving the growth of the Black population in New York City.[5]
African American Day Parade in Harlem in 2022

Since the earlier part of the 19th century, there has been a large presence of African Americans in New York City.[9] Early Black communities were created after the state's final abolition of slavery in 1827.[10] The metropolis quickly became home to one of the most sizeable populations of emancipated African Americans.[11] But Blacks did not receive equal voting rights in New York until the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution in 1870.[12] New York City and other northern cities saw a sharp rise in their Black populations in the wake of Jim Crow in the South.[13] In the early 1900s, many African Americans moved to Harlem, due to a number of factors, including many Black migrants relocating from the South to the North.[14] But the demographic shift would change once again in the 20th century. In 1936, overcrowding in Harlem caused scores of African Americans to leave and move to Bedford-Stuyvesant, which eventually became the second largest Black community in New York City.[15]

New York City's Black population would be altered again in the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2020, many Black families left the city primarily due to the city's high cost of living.[16] Many blacks leaving New York City have moved to cities in the U.S. South, including Atlanta, Charlotte, Dallas, Houston, Jacksonville, Little Rock, Memphis, Orlando, New Orleans, Charleston, Portsmouth, Oklahoma City, West Palm Beach, Missouri City, Peachtree Corners, Tampa, Austin, Sugar Land, Gaithersburg, Wilmington, Durham, Greensboro, Fayetteville, Jackson, Killeen, Birmingham, Huntsville, Nashville, Arlington, Columbia, Raleigh, Richmond, Fort Worth, Greenville, and San Antonio.[16] In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of African Americans in New York City declined, due to Blacks having a higher rate of contracting and dying from the virus than other racial groups.[17]

Demographics

edit

According to the 2010 census, New York City had the largest population of Black residents of any U.S. city, with over 2 million within the city's boundaries, although this number has decreased since 2000, falling below 2 million as of 2020.[18] In fact, New York recorded the third largest Black population decline among American cities from 2000 - 2020, registering a loss of nearly 200,000 Black residents (roughly 9% of the 2000 Black population).[19] The driving factor for this outmigration appears to be the increasing cost of living in New York, particularly for families.[19] Black families leaving New York are frequently drawn to places where job growth and housing is more plentiful.

The Black community consists of immigrants and their descendants from Africa and the Caribbean as well as native-born African Americans. Many of the city's Black residents live in Brooklyn, Queens, Harlem, and The Bronx. Several of the city's neighborhoods are historical birthplaces of urban Black culture in America, among them, the Brooklyn neighborhood of Bedford–Stuyvesant and Manhattan's Harlem and various sections of Eastern Queens and The Bronx. Bedford-Stuyvesant is considered to have the highest concentration of Black residents in the United States. New York City has the largest population of Black immigrants (at 686,814) and descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean (especially from Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Guyana, Belize, Grenada, and Haiti), Latin America (Afro-Latinos), and of sub-Saharan Africans. In recent decades, as Afro-Caribbean and West Indian populations in the city have shrunk,[20] immigration from the African continent has become the primary driver of Black population growth in New York City.[5]

The racial and ethnic makeup of Black neighborhoods in New York is also changing. From 2000 to 2010, the Black share of all residents in the average majority Black New York City neighborhood declined by 3.7 percentage points, while the share of Other (+2.4), Hispanic (+1.7), and Asian (+0.4) residents all grew,[21] suggesting that while Black neighborhoods are becoming more diverse, they may also be losing their quintessentially Black character. As of 2010, Black majority neighborhoods in New York continue to see higher poverty rates and lower household incomes than their White Majority counterparts, but exhibit lower poverty rates and higher household incomes than Asian or Hispanic Majority neighborhoods, bucking national trends.[21] Much of this can be attributed to the unique makeup of Black New Yorkers, with New York's substantial foreign-born Black population - which tend to be wealthier than US-born Blacks[22] - making it a relative outlier compared to other major US cities.

History

edit
 
The Apollo Theater on 125th Street in Harlem is the historic nexus of African American culture.

New York residents denied blacks equal voting rights. By the constitution of 1777, voting was restricted to free men who could satisfy certain property requirements for the value of real estate. This property requirement disfranchised poor men among both blacks and whites. The reformed Constitution of 1821 conditioned suffrage for black men by maintaining the property requirement, which most could not meet, so effectively disfranchised them. The same constitution eliminated the property requirement for white men and expanded their franchise.[23] The African Grove theater served the community until it was shut down by police. Seneca Village was established in 1825. In 1850, the American League of Colored Laborers, the first black labor union in the United States, was established in New York City.[24]

After abolition

edit

Following the final abolition of slavery in New York in 1827, New York City emerged as one of the largest pre-Civil War metropolitan concentrations of free African-Americans, and many institutions were established to advance the community in the antebellum period. It was the site of the first African-American periodical journal Freedom's Journal, which lasted for two years and renamed The Rights of All for a third year before fading to obsolescence; the newspaper served as both a powerful voice for the abolition lobby in the United States as well as a voice of information for the African population of New York City and other metropolitan areas. The African Dorcas Association was also established to provide educational and clothing aid to Black youth in the city.[25][26] "As late as 1869, a majority of the state's voters cast ballots in favor of retaining property qualifications that kept New York's polls closed to many blacks. African American men did not obtain equal voting rights in New York until the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870."[23]

Emancipated African Americans established communities in the New York City area, including Seneca Village in what is now Central Park of Manhattan and Sandy Ground on Staten Island, and Weeksville in Brooklyn. These communities were among the earliest.[27] The city was a nerve center for the abolitionist movement in the United States.[28][29]

Harlem and Great Migration

edit
Main articles: Harlem and Harlem Renaissance
 
Philip A. Payton, Jr.

The violent rise of Jim Crow in the Deep and Upper South led to the mass migration of African Americans, including ex-slaves and their free-born children, from those regions to northern metropolitan areas, including New York City. Their mass arrival coincided with the transition of the center of African-American power and demography in the city from other districts of the city to Harlem.[30]

The tipping point occurred on June 15, 1904, when up-and-coming real estate entrepreneur Philip A. Payton, Jr. established the Afro-American Realty Company, which began to aggressively buy and lease houses in the ethnically mixed but predominantly-white Harlem following the housing crashes of 1904 and 1905. In addition to an influx of long-time African-American residents from other neighborhoods,[31] the Tenderloin, San Juan Hill (now the site of Lincoln Center), Little Africa around Minetta Lane in Greenwich Village and Hell's Kitchen in the west 40s and 50s.[32][33] The move to northern Manhattan was driven in part by fears that anti-black riots such as those that had occurred in the Tenderloin in 1900[34] and in San Juan Hill in 1905[35] might recur. In addition, a number of tenements that had been occupied by blacks in the west 30s were destroyed at this time to make way for the construction of the original Penn Station.

In 1905, U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt appointed Charles William Anderson as Collector of Revenue in New York City.

Caribbean immigration

edit
Main article: Caribbean immigration to New York City

The Great Depression and demographic shift

edit

Harlem's decline as the center of the African American population in New York City began with the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. In the early 1930s, 25% of Harlemites were out of work, and employment prospects for Harlemites stayed bad for decades. Employment among black New Yorkers fell as some traditionally black businesses, including domestic service and some types of manual labor, were taken over by other ethnic groups. Major industries left New York City altogether, especially after 1950. Several riots happened in this period, including in 1935 and 1943. Following the construction of the IND Fulton Street Line[36] in 1936, African Americans left an overcrowded Harlem for greater housing availability in Bedford–Stuyvesant. migrants from the American South brought the neighborhood's black population to around 30,000, making it the second largest Black community in the city at the time. During World War II, the Brooklyn Navy Yard attracted many blacks to the neighborhood as an opportunity for employment, while the relatively prosperous war economy enabled many of the resident Jews and Italians to move to Queens and Long Island. By 1950, the number of blacks in Bedford–Stuyvesant had risen to 155,000, comprising about 55 percent of the population of Bedford–Stuyvesant.[37] In the 1950s, real estate agents and speculators employed blockbusting to turn a profit. As a result, formerly middle-class white homes were being turned over to poorer Black families. By 1960, eighty-five percent of the population was Black.[37]

21st century

edit

Population decline

edit

In a reversal from the first half of the 20th century that saw scores of African Americans leaving the South for the North, between 2000 and 2020, many Black families left New York City and moved to the South.[16] The Black population of the city over this time declined by 176,062, the third largest decrease amongst US municipalities, after Chicago and Detroit.[38] High rents, cramped living quarters, and the city's high cost of living and raising a family were among the reasons cited for leaving.[19] The decline was greatest among young Black populations, with the number of children, teenagers, and young Black professionals decreasing more than 19 percent in the past two decades.[19]

COVID-19 pandemic

edit
 
During the initial the outbreak of the COVID-19, mortuary trucks like these were used by hospitals and morgues across the city to house the dead.[39]

The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately affected African Americans living inside the United States.[40] Black Americans are more likely to contract COVID-19, more likely to be hospitalized, and more likely to die from COVID-19 than White, non-Hispanic Americans.[41] Many Black Americans work jobs without health insurance coverage, leading to an inability to seek proper medical care when faced with a severe COVID-19 case.[40] Furthermore, Black Americans were overrepresented in jobs labeled essential when governments began reacting to the pandemic, such as grocery store workers, transit workers, and civil jobs. This meant Black Americans continued to work jobs that posed higher risk to exposure to COVID-19.[42]

The unique combination of stressors faced by Black people in America during the COVID-19 pandemic has put many Black social systems and crisis-meeting resources under stress. The Black church has historically been a place of community support, recognition, and social connections for African-American communities, a community that provides access to the physical, emotional, and spiritual needs that many Black Americans face systematic difficulty in attaining.[43] The policy of social distancing as recommended for the sake of public health in COVID-19 has contributed to the hardships faced by all humans, but has affected Black Americans and their social systems especially.[43] Black Americans that live within the poor and underserviced neighborhoods rely on complex social and religious organizations, including the Black church, to meet their physical and emotional needs.[44] Social distancing has led to an increased difficulty in maintaining these essential social relationships, resulting in increased social isolation throughout Black communities.[44]

Within New York City, these issues are present or intensified. The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed the long-standing systemic racism present throughout New York City's healthcare system, especially in terms of access to critical healthcare resources in underserviced, and often predominantly Black communities.[45] This inability to properly treat affected Black residents of certain New York City zip codes is especially harsh when contrasted by the abundance of empty hospital beds and available resources of the hospitals in more affluent and well-off communities.[45] The racial inequality between zip codes is further highlighted when examining COVID-19 testing rates, where zip codes of predominantly Black New Yorkers are at a significantly higher risk of testing positive for COVID-19.[46] Of the ten zip codes in New York City with the highest COVID-19 death rates, eight of them are Black or Hispanic.[47]

Notable Black New Yorkers

edit

18th and 19th-centuries

edit

20th and 21st-centuries

edit
  • Pop Smoke
  • Sleepy Hallow

    • Accomplishments

    edit
     
    James McCune Smith, first African American to run a pharmacy in the United States
    • Adam Clayton Powell Jr. - first person of African-American descent to be elected from New York to Congress; previously, the first person of African-American descent to be elected to New York City Council
    • Alonzo Smythe Yerby - first black chairman of a department at the public health school, and the first black to be New York City Hospitals Commissioner, heading the city's hospitals department, namesake of the Harvard Chan Yerby Fellowship Program at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.[55]
    • Arthur Mitchell - First African-American male dancer in a major ballet company: (New York City Ballet); also first African-American principal dancer of a major ballet company (NYCB), 1956
    • Brigette A. Bryant - first woman of African-American descent to serve as Vice Chancellor of the City University of New York
    • David Dinkins - first African-American mayor of New York City (1990)
    • Dr. James McCune Smith - First formally trained African-American Medical Doctor
    • Letitia James - first woman of African-American descent to be elected to citywide office (New York City Public Advocate)
    • Mary Pinkett, first woman of African-American descent to be elected to New York City Council
    • Robert O. Lowery - first African-American fire commissioner of the New York City Fire Department and of any major U.S. City fire department
    • Samuel J. Battle - first African-American police officer in the New York Police Department following consolidation of the boroughs (1911). Also the NYPD's first African-American sergeant (1926), lieutenant (1935), and parole commissioner (1941).
    • Shirley Chisholm - first black woman elected to the U.S. Congress and first black candidate, male or female, for a major party's nomination for President of the United States.
    • Todd Duncan - first African-American member of the New York City Opera
    • Wesley Augustus Williams - first African-American officer in the New York Fire Department
    • William Grant Still's Troubled Island as performed by the New York City Opera - the first black-composed opera to be performed by a major U.S. company
    • Willie Overton - first African-American police officer in present-day New York City (1891)[56]

    See also

    edit

    References

    edit
    1. ^ "New York City - Place Explorer - Data Commons". datacommons.org. Archived from the original on September 18, 2024. Retrieved December 9, 2023.
    2. ^ "Where New Yorkers Live". Where We Live NYC. Archived from the original on June 29, 2022. Retrieved December 9, 2023.
    3. ^ Bloomquist, Jennifer; Green, Lisa J.; Lanehart, Sonja L.; Blake, Renée A.; Shousterman, Cara; Newlin-Lukowicz, Luiza (2015). "African American Language in New York City". The Oxford Handbook of African American Language. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199795390.013.37. ISBN 978-0-19-979539-0. Archived from the original on May 8, 2021. Retrieved May 25, 2022.
    4. ^ "Religious Landscape Study". Archived from the original on May 25, 2022. Retrieved May 25, 2022.
    5. ^ a b Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura (January 13, 2023). "African and Invisible: The Other New York Migrant Crisis". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 25, 2023. Retrieved January 26, 2023.
    6. ^ Tamir, Christine (March 25, 2021). "The Growing Diversity of Black America". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on July 24, 2022. Retrieved April 8, 2023.
    7. ^ a b "NYC 2010: Results from the 2010 Census" (PDF). NYC.Gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 4, 2023. Retrieved July 4, 2023.
    8. ^ Kasinitz, Philip (1992). Caribbean New York: Black Immigrants and the Politics of Race. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801426513.
    9. ^ Peterson, Carla (February 17, 2012). "Answers About Black Life in 19th-Century New York, Part 2". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 4, 2023. Retrieved July 4, 2023.
    10. ^ Landy, Craig (June 7, 2017). "When did slavery end in New York?". Historical Society of the New York Courts. Archived from the original on July 4, 2023. Retrieved July 4, 2023.
    11. ^ "The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross". PBS. Archived from the original on July 24, 2019. Retrieved July 4, 2023.
    12. ^ Landy, Craig (June 7, 2017). "When Did Slavery End in New York?". Historical Society of the New York Courts. Archived from the original on July 4, 2023. Retrieved July 4, 2023.
    13. ^ "The Great Migration (1910-1970)". The National Archives and Records Administration. May 20, 2021. Archived from the original on September 27, 2022. Retrieved July 4, 2023.
    14. ^ "Great Migration". History.com. January 11, 2023. Archived from the original on February 28, 2021. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
    15. ^ Dubose-Simons, Carla (January 2013). "The "Silent Arrival": The Second Wave of the Great Migration and Its Effects on Black New York, 1940-1950". CUNY Academic Works. Archived from the original on July 6, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
    16. ^ a b c Arya Sundaram (February 3, 2023). "The African American Exodus from New York City". Gothamist. Archived from the original on July 6, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
    17. ^ Ray, Rashawn (April 9, 2020). "Why Are Blacks Dying At Higher Rates From COVID-19?". The Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on July 6, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
    18. ^ a b c d "Why Black Families Are Leaving New York, and What It Means for the City - The New York Times". The New York Times. January 31, 2023. Archived from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved November 25, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
    19. ^ "People of African Descent in New York City – Center for Law and Social Justice". Archived from the original on September 8, 2024. Retrieved November 26, 2024.
    20. ^ a b "The Changing Racial and Ethnic Makeup of New York City Neighborhoods" (PDF). NYU Furman Center for Real Estate and Urban Policy. Retrieved November 25, 2024.
    21. ^ Anderson, Monica (April 9, 2015). "Chapter 1: Statistical Portrait of the U.S. Black Immigrant Population". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on August 23, 2024. Retrieved November 26, 2024.
    22. ^ a b "African American Voting Rights" Archived 2010-11-09 at the Wayback Machine, New York State Archives. Retrieved February 11, 2012.
    23. ^ Bradley, Jonathan (January 4, 2011). "American League of Colored Laborers (1850-?)". BlackPast.org. Archived from the original on February 5, 2024. Retrieved April 26, 2024.
    24. ^ Jackson, Kenneth T.; Keller, Lisa; Flood, Nancy (December 1, 2010). The Encyclopedia of New York City: Second Edition. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300182576 – via Google Books.
    25. ^ "Blacks-Encyclopedia of New York City". virtualny.ashp.cuny.edu. Archived from the original on May 25, 2022. Retrieved December 9, 2023.
    26. ^ Phelps, Benjamin (April 18, 2023). "Uncovering NYC: New York City's First Free Black Communities — Seneca Village | Secrets of the Dead | PBS". Secrets of the Dead. Archived from the original on December 9, 2023. Retrieved December 9, 2023.
    27. ^ "Aboltionism | New York Heritage". nyheritage.org. Archived from the original on December 9, 2023. Retrieved December 9, 2023.
    28. ^ Jackson, Kenneth T.; Keller, Lisa; Flood, Nancy (December 1, 2010). The Encyclopedia of New York City: Second Edition. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300114652 – via Google Books.
    29. ^ "Great Migration: Definition, Causes & Impact". History.com. March 4, 2010. Archived from the original on February 12, 2019. Retrieved December 9, 2023.
    30. ^ "The Making of Harlem," Archived 2006-06-15 at the Wayback Machine James Weldon Johnson, The Survey Graphic, March 1925
    31. ^ "Negro Districts in Manhattan", The New York Times, November 17, 1901.
    32. ^ "Negroes Move Into Harlem", New York Herald, December 24, 1905.
    33. ^ Alphonso Pinkney & Roger Woock, Poverty and Politics in Harlem, College & University Press Services, Inc., 1970, p. 26.
    34. ^ "Harlem, the Village That Became a Ghetto", Martin Duberman, in New York, N.Y.: An American Heritage History of the Nation's Greatest City, 1968
    35. ^ Echanove, Matias. "Bed-Stuy on the Move" Archived 2017-09-16 at the Wayback Machine. Master thesis. Urban Planning Program. Columbia University. Urbanology.org. 2003.
    36. ^ a b Newfield, Jack (1988). Robert Kennedy: A Memoir (reprint ed.). New York: Penguin Group. pp. 87–109. ISBN 0-452-26064-7.
    37. ^ "Black People Are Leaving Chicago en Masse. It's Changing the City's Power Politics". Politico. December 7, 2021. Archived from the original on October 7, 2024. Retrieved November 25, 2024.
    38. ^ Ochs, Caitlin; Cherelus, Gina (May 27, 2020). "Opinion | 'Dead Inside': The Morgue Trucks of New York City". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 2, 2021. Retrieved March 16, 2021.
    39. ^ a b "2020 State of Black America". online.flowpaper.com. Retrieved February 22, 2021.
    40. ^ CDC (February 11, 2020). "Cases, Data, and Surveillance". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved February 22, 2021.
    41. ^ "Who are essential workers?: A comprehensive look at their wages, demographics, and unionization rates". Economic Policy Institute. Archived from the original on December 23, 2020. Retrieved February 22, 2021.
    42. ^ a b Chaney, Cassandra (October 2020). "Family Stress and Coping Among African Americans in the Age of COVID-19". Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 51 (3–4): 254–273. doi:10.3138/jcfs.51.3-4.003. S2CID 226357674.
    43. ^ a b Davis, Dannielle Joy; Chaney, Cassandra; BeLue, Rhonda (October 2020). "Why 'We Can't Breathe' During COVID-19". Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 51 (3–4): 417–428. doi:10.3138/jcfs.51.3-4.015. S2CID 226377965.
    44. ^ a b Douglas, Jason A.; Subica, Andrew M. (December 2020). "COVID-19 treatment resource disparities and social disadvantage in New York City". Preventive Medicine. 141: 106282. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106282. PMC 7536513. PMID 33035550.
    45. ^ DiMaggio, Charles; Klein, Michael; Berry, Cherisse; Frangos, Spiros (November 2020). "Black/African American Communities are at highest risk of COVID-19: spatial modeling of New York City ZIP Code–level testing results". Annals of Epidemiology. 51: 7–13. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2020.08.012. PMC 7438213. PMID 32827672.
    46. ^ Schwirtz, Michael; Cook, Lindsey Rogers (May 19, 2020). "These N.Y.C. Neighborhoods Have the Highest Rates of Virus Deaths". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 18, 2021. Retrieved March 16, 2021.
    47. ^ Washington, S. A. M. (1910). George Thomas Downing; sketch of his life and times. Duke University Libraries. Newport, R.I., Milne Printery.
    48. ^ "James W. C. Pennington, 1807-1870: Summary of The Fugitive Blacksmith; or, Events in the History of James W. C. Pennington, Pastor of a Presbyterian Church, New York, Formerly a Slave in the State of Maryland, United States". Documenting the American South, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on May 13, 2020. Retrieved January 21, 2023.
    49. ^ Work, M. N. (1919). "The Life of Charles B. Ray". The Journal of Negro History. 4 (4). Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc.: 361–371. doi:10.2307/2713446. JSTOR 2713446. S2CID 149464921.
    50. ^ a b Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (March 26, 2015). The Underground Railroad: An Encyclopedia of People, Places, and Operations. Routledge. p. 675. ISBN 978-1-317-45416-8.
    51. ^ Morgan, Thomas M (July 2003). "The education and medical practice of Dr. James McCune Smith (1813-1865), first black American to hold a medical degree". Journal of the National Medical Association. 95 (7): 603–14. PMC 2594637. PMID 12911258. Note: Glasgow University's matriculation album for 1832 lists Smith as "the first natural son of Samuel, merchant, New York" (translated from Latin)
    52. ^ "Edwin Garrison Walker". The Fight for Black Mobility: Traveling to Mid-Century Conventions, Colored Conventions Project. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved January 21, 2023.
    53. ^ Bowens, Lisa (October 14, 2021). "Biographical Reflection: Theodore Sedgwick Wright". Princeton Theological Seminary. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved January 21, 2023.
    54. ^ Boston, 677 Huntington Avenue; Ma 02115 +1495‑1000. "Harvard Chan Yerby Fellowship Program". Harvard Chan Yerby Fellowship Program. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021. Retrieved June 26, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    55. ^ Rennison, Callie Marie; Dodge, Mary (January 8, 2015). Introduction to Criminal Justice. SAGE. ISBN 9781452240671 – via Google Books.
    edit
     
    Wikimedia Commons has media related to African Americans in Harlem.
    Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=African_Americans_in_New_York_City&oldid=1262202153"